EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A coastal biodiversity survey was undertaken on the northern Somali coast to establish the status of the marine resources in the region, threats to the biodiversity and appropriate measures for the sustainable use and conservation of the resources. It formed part of the IUCN Somali Natural Resources Management Programme, funded by the EC, which aims to improve the socio-economic well-being of the Somali people by enhancing the ecological sustainability of their natural resource use. Fieldwork was carried out in collaboration with Cooperazione Internationale (COOPI).

Extremely wide-ranging activities were commissioned, aimed at determining:

1. The conservation and biodiversity value of the coast between Berbera and Raas-Khansir.

2. The extent and nature of marine resource use, the user groups and their dependence on the resources.

3. The level and nature of threats to the biodiversity in the area.

4. Appropriate conservation measures needed to promote sustainable use of the area.

The survey was undertaken between 4-11 March 1999 from 15 km west of Berbera to the mangrove known as Khoor Shoora approximately 150 km to the east. Data were collected on the nature and biodiversity of the shoreline, mangrove, seaweed, coral reef and pelagic environments. A record was kept on the abundance of turtles, dolphins and seabirds, as well as of the extent of turtle nesting on beaches.

The oceanographic conditions in the study area are primarily influenced by seasonal monsoons, complex seasonal currents and physical conditions. Nutrient levels are largely determined by variable current patterns and annual fluctuations in upwelling intensity. In terms of primary productivity, the study area is thought to fall in a transition zone between the richly productive water to the north-east and the East African shelf environment to the west. Daily winds generally blow parallel to the shore and generate inshore currents and a choppy sea. This disturbs the fine sediments and the inshore waters become milky and turbid. This diurnal increase in turbidity and sediment transport is probably a limiting factor on coral settlement and growth.

The marine environment off Berbera is very productive. Seaweeds flourish in many areas in the inshore region and wind-generated water movement promotes their growth as well as the transport and breakdown of algal detritus in the system. Large shoals of fish were observed in the region and these provide food for numerous dolphins, a further indication of high productivity. The seaweed beds, associated detritus and climatic energy subsidy make a contribution towards the productivity of the area. Further study would be needed to establish the importance of seaweed production relative to that derived from upwelling.

The coastline is relatively straight and consists mainly of beaches; very small rocky promontories occur only in a few localities. A raised fossilised seabed backs many of the beaches. The dunes behind the beaches are generally low and sparsely colonised by xerophytic grasses and shrubs, as is the coastal plain. A high dune field, which is almost devoid of vegetation, occurs in one locality and arid rocky mountains are found at three sites.

At the time of the study, the beaches had a clear monsoon storm berm above the present high water mark. The latter was littered with seaweed, some coral fragments and large numbers of shells, particularly shells of gastropods occupied by scavenging hermit crabs. Remarkably little pollution was found. Ghost crabs were prolific on some beaches.

The subtidal sandy substratum appears to be relatively sterile. Seaweed detritus had accumulated in the sand ripples in certain areas and a single concentration of holothurians was found next to one reef. However, very few observations were made on the sand substratum because of time constraints and this environment may be inhabited by burrowing organisms such as bivalves. No evidence of their presence was found in beach litter.

As stated, rocky shores were sparse. The intertidal zone had a clear band of Saccostrea cucullata, some whelks (Nerita sp.) and grapsid crabs. No corals were observed in the subtidal region, which was also sparsely vegetated with few algae, probably because of surf energy. Reefs were found between 1-10 m and appeared to originate from fossilised beach rock. They thus appear to represent a submerged coastline and were patchy.

The coral communities on the reefs varied considerably in their condition. All had been affected by bleaching to some degree. The shallow reefs (1-2 m) to the west of Berbera were slightly bleached and those <1 m appeared to have died from tidal exposure. The shallow reefs to the east of Berbera were far more severely affected by bleaching and, in many instances, had suffered nearly total mortality and become both encrusted and accreted by coralline algae. Montipora stellata had commenced recolonisation of these areas.

Deeper reefs (2-5 m) were in better condition. Patchy reefs subject to considerable sedimentation were dominated by sediment tolerant faviids, while more established reefs were dominated by Porites spp. and plate Montipora spp. Astreopora myriophthalma was conspicuous on the deepest reefs (5-10 m) and manifested recovery from crown-of-thorns (COTS) predation. Three COTS were found on one reef. A total of 69 species of scleractinian coral, 11 species of alcyonacean (soft) coral and two species of fire coral were found during the survey. Other reef organisms encountered during the field work were sparse and included only five Panulirus versicolor, two specimens of two species of anemones, five specimens of Tridacna spp. and various sponges, ascidians, holothurians, echinoids, crinoids, molluscs and zoanthids.

Seaweed were widespread in patches on hard substrata, both in the inshore area and in deeper water (<10 m) that is sedimented to a varying degree. Their prevalence on substrata which would otherwise appear more suitable for corals is probably due to a combination of physico-chemical factors. These would include the levels of turbidity and sedimentation that were observed, as well as the nutrient enrichment emanating from these factors and regional upwelling. A range of green, brown and red algae were recorded. Sheets of Zoanthus sansibaricus and a number of sponges were associated with the deeper algal beds.

Reef fish were diverse and the presence of large schools of fish as well as an abundance of large fishes indicated a relatively unexploited resource and pristine environment. The diversity of reef fish was greatest in the coral reef environment and substantially lower in areas with a rocky or sandy substratum and in algal dominated assemblages. However, the abundance of fishes, including juveniles, in the latter environment was higher. The reef fish community differs considerably from that of the eastern Arabian Peninsula to the north, and the fish communities of eastern Africa to the south and the Red Sea to the west.

Large shoals of pelagic fish were conspicuous. Pelagic fishes observed at sea included schooling tuna (e.g. bonito), carcharinid sharks and whale sharks.

Small cetaceans are abundant in waters off Somaliland. A total of 35 sightings of five species of dolphins (common, spinner, spotted, bottle-nose and humpback dolphins) were recorded during the survey. More than 20 species of sea and shore birds were recorded but, in the case of gulls and terns, these were not as numerous as anticipated, particularly as feeding aggregations over shoaling fishes.

Evidence of turtle nesting was found on beaches distant from Berbera. A total of 36 nests was the highest density encountered along a five km stretch of coast. Turtle remains and sightings at sea suggested that green turtles and hawksbill turtles are the commonest species in the area, while a single loggerhead turtle was seen at sea. The major threat to turtles arises from the opportunistic harvest of green turtles which includes incidental gill net entrapment. Natural threats to the eggs include the flooding of nests and the likelihood of egg consumption by land mammals. Humans apparently collect turtle eggs during the Southwest Monsoon season.

The extensive lagoon at Khoor Shoora is bounded by a fringe of Avicennia marina. It is characterised by clean sediment, clear water and prolific seaweed growth; there appeared to be little freshwater input. Little evidence of timber extraction was found and very little appears to be used as firewood. The fauna in the area included a number of birds, abundant juvenile fishes and mud crabs.

Marine resources are used only on a small scale in the study area, canoes being used to set a limited number of 7, 15 and 30 cm stretch mesh size gill nets. Handline fishing was observed on one occasion. Sharks are especially targeted in these operations with only the valuable fins being landed; this is largely due to a lack of refrigeration.

Turtles appear to be harvested opportunistically, both by jigging and harpooning at sea and through the capture of nesting turtles. Both fishermen and nomadic herdsmen are probably responsible for the latter; herders have temporary shelters and animal pens on certain beaches.

The mangrove crab, Scylla serrata, appears to be the only invertebrate which is harvested. These were seen in the market in Berbera but their origin was unknown.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The area surveyed is both productive and relatively pristine apart from the deleterious effects of coral bleaching and, to a lesser extent, COTS predation on the coral reefs. The effects of human activity on the environment appear to be minimal, the only exceptions being the relatively heavy, opportunistic exploitation of turtles and wasteful harvest of sharks. The coast thus provides a number of opportunities for forward planning to accommodate biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. Actions taken now will safeguard the potential value of the Somaliland coast for future use. Recommendations including the following were thus made for:

1. The proclamation of small reserves or marine protected areas (MPAs).
2. Regulation of the harvesting of turtles and their eggs.
3. The continued, limited use of fishing nets and an investigation of alternative techniques for the sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources.
4. Coastal mapping and zonation in terms of sensitivity and suitability for development.
5. A review of existing legal and institutional requirements for conservation management.
6. Investigation of the establishment of small ecotourism ventures.
7. Investigation of the sustainable harvest of algae for conversion into fertiliser with the presently wasted shark harvest.
8. Extension of the biodiversity surveys to both the west and east.
9. Monitoring of the coral reefs for further deterioration or recovery from COTS outbreaks and bleaching.

INTRODUCTION

A coastal biodiversity survey was undertaken on the northern Somali coast to establish the status of the marine resources in the region, threats to the biodiversity and appropriate measures for the sustainable use and conservation of the resources. It formed part of Phase II of the IUCN (EARO) Somali Natural Resources Management Programme, funded by the EC, which aims to improve the socio-economic well-being of the Somali people by enhancing the ecological sustainability of their natural resource use.

The coastal and marine resources of Somalia are of great importance in this semidesert country. They have been identified as having high economic value and potential for the rehabilitation and development of the country. The coastal reef and offshore fisheries are, according to many accounts, highly productive in terms of demersal and pelagic species.

Phase II of the Somali Natural Resources Management Programme has the broad aims of establishing:

- Priority environmental management systems implemented at local level at designated sites in the realms of wood fuel conservation, fisheries monitoring and management, marine conservation and land use planning for sustainable natural resource management.

- Institutional and human resource capacity strengthened in support of the abovementioned priority environmental management systems through awareness raising and training.

- Knowledge base and understanding of ecological and natural resource dynamics increased within context of priority environmental management systems."

OBJECTIVES AND TERMS OF REFERENCE

Extremely wide-ranging activities were commissioned, aimed at determining:

1. The conservation and biodiversity value of the coast between Berbera and Raas-Khansir.
2. The extent and nature of marine resource use, the user groups and their dependence on the resources.
3. The level and nature of threats to the biodiversity in the area.
4. Appropriate conservation measures needed to promote sustainable use of the area.
The terms of reference of the consultancy were to undertake a preliminary ecological assessment of the area to the east of Berbera for a distance of about 150km based on field work in the area. The following specific tasks were commissioned:

" - Detailed identification, description, classification and mapping of land and marine habitats of the area, including for example beach types (sandy/rocky), seagrass beds, mangroves, shrubs, coral reefs, etc. and definition of coordinates for these determined from a GPS;

- Detailed description of land-based ecological indicators including evidence of turtle nesting, seabird and shorebird nesting and migration, and human-based utilisation of resources;

- Detailed description of marine-based ecological indicators including evidence of threatened marine species (e.g. turtles, tridacnid clams, etc.), human-based utilisation of marine resources (e.g. coral);

- Rapid assessment of fish populations having commercial and conservation value, including other harvestable species such as spiny lobsters that might be identified during the course of the survey;

- Rapid assessment surveys of coral reef diversity and status (e.g. coral cover, condition, etc.);

- Identification of fishing activities and their nature;

- Based on the above-mentioned findings, identify conservation issues and recommend practical measures for the development of conservation and sustainable utilisation of the land and marine-based resources of the area.

- The final Assessment Report should include the following:

- description of the methods used for the ecological assessment;
- detailed description of the results of the assessment highlighting the ecological importance and conservation value of coastal and marine habitats, and their uses and threats;
- recommendations for further action to develop conservation and sustainable utilisation measures (emphasizing sensitive habitats and vulnerable species).
- appendices containing maps, habitat description, species list and other data."

METHODS

The survey was undertaken between 4-11 March 1999 from 15 km west of Berbera to the mangrove known as Khoor Shoora approximately 150 km to the east. Berbera was used as a base during the survey and access to the coast was gained by road and sea. Data were collected on the nature and biodiversity of the shoreline, mangrove, seaweed, coral reef and pelagic environments. A record was kept on the abundance of turtles, dolphins and seabirds, as well as of the extent of turtle nesting on beaches. While the shore surveys were conducted by foot, many of the marine observations were made while travelling to the survey sites by boat and the reef surveys were undertaken by breath-hold diving. Comprehensive species lists were kept of the biota encountered as far as possible as well as visual estimates of their density where appropriate. GPS co-ordinates of all the survey sites were recorded. Photographs were taken of interesting features above and below the water.

RESULTS

The coastline is relatively straight and consists mainly of beaches; very small rocky promontories occur only near Raas Khansir, at Raas Cuuda and at the foot of the cliffs at Siyara. A raised fossilised seabed backs many of the beaches. The dunes behind the beaches are generally low and sparsely colonised by xerophytic grasses and shrubs, as is the coastal plain. A high dune field, which is almost devoid of vegetation, occurs on a brief stretch of coast at Raas Xaatib. Arid rocky mountains are found close to the coast at Raas Khansir, Siyara and El Girdi.

The oceanographic conditions along the coast of the Gulf of Aden between Berbera and Raas Khansir are primarily influenced by seasonal monsoons, complex seasonal currents and physical conditions. Currents generally flow eastward during the Southwest Monsoon between March and October. This monsoon drives the flow of nutrients derived from cold-water upwelling generated by the powerful Somali Gyre (June to September) further north off the Horn. The Northeast Monsoon reverses the prevailing currents along the shore of Somaliland during the rest of the year, which then flow westward. Variable current patterns and annual fluctuations in upwelling intensity largely determine nutrient levels along the coast of the Gulf of Aden. In terms of primary productivity, the study area is thought to fall in a transition zone between the richly productive water to the north-east and the more typical East African shelf environment to the west.

A difference was noted between the beaches and coastal plain on either side of Berbera. Beaches east of Berbera consisted of fairly coarse sand that appears to be derived largely from the adjacent beach rock. Rich deposits of heavy, black mineral sand were a feature of this stretch of coast. The associated dunes and coastal plain had markedly xerophytic vegetation which was overgrazed in certain areas. Genera recognised amongst the dune vegetation were Limonium, Cyperus, Halopeplis and low halophytic shrubs similar to the Cornulaca/Sphaeracoma community on the Arabian peninsula. Tamarisks up to 3m in height were conspicuous in wadis and low, scrubby trees such as Acacia tortilis were common on the coastal plain. An unidentified shrub known locally `Mora' and used for weaving water-tight containers was also found in some localities.

Gazelles were observed in the region.

The beaches west of Berbera consisted of finer, more bioclastic marine sediment and had less heavy mineral sand. The dunes were more densely covered with succulent xerophytic shrubs and the coastal plain had a sparse covering of open scrub forest consisting of 1-3 m tall specimens of Acacia and ?Maytenus spp. The area is noticeably less arid and more densely vegetated. Several small, temporary shelters were encountered here with nomadic herdsmen and their camels. Gazelles, dik-dik and a wild cat were observed on the plain.

Most of the subtidal substratum likewise consisted largely of sand. Reefs, where found, had developed on exposed bedrock and were colonised to a varying degree by coral or seaweed.

The winds blew parallel to the coast from the north-east during the survey period (the prevailing direction based on the evidence of dune field movement). The mornings were frequently calm but the wind generally rose before noon and generated currents and a choppy sea (up to Sea State 4 on the Beaufort Scale). This disturbed the fine sediments and the inshore waters became milky and turbid. This diurnal increase in turbidity and sediment transport is probably a limiting factor on coral settlement and growth. The sporadic outflow of silt laden water from wadis in flood would add to the turbidity and contribute nutrients to the marine environment.

The marine environment off Berbera is clearly very productive. Seaweeds flourish in many areas in the inshore region and wind-generated water movement promotes their growth as well as the transport and breakdown of algal detritus in the system. Large shoals of fish were observed in the region and these provide food for numerous dolphins, a further indication of high productivity. The seaweed beds, associated detritus and climatic energy subsidy make a contribution towards the productivity of the area. Further study would be needed to establish the importance of seaweed production relative to that derived from upwelling.

Specific findings of the survey were as follows:

FISH

Reef fishes

Reef fish were studied in conjunction with coral surveys and to a lesser extent on rocky and seaweed dominated reefs. The generally diverse fish fauna (140 species were recorded; Table 1) and the presence of large schools of fish (such as lutjanids and carangids) as well as an abundance of large fishes (such as serranids and plectorhynchids) is indicative of a relatively unexploited resource and pristine environment. The diversity of reef fish was greatest in the coral reef environment and substantially lower in areas with a rocky or sandy substratum and in algal dominated assemblages. However, the abundance of fishes, including juveniles, in the latter environment was higher. Degraded reefs that were colonised by filamentous and coralline algae had a greater proportion of herbivorous fish which, in some instances, were numerous and formed large shoals. Surgeon fishes were conspicuous in this regard.

The reef fish community differs considerably from that of the eastern Arabian Peninsula to the north, and the fish communities of eastern Africa to the south and the Red Sea to the west (even of the Saad ed Din Islands in western Somaliland). This was particularly the case in families characteristic of coral reefs, such as the Chaetodontidae, Acanthuridae and Balistidae. Nevertheless, the reef fish community shows affinities to all three regions.

Pelagic fishes

Pelagic fish were not a specific focus of the survey, but large shoals of fish were conspicuous (including clupeids and Rastrelliger sp.), particularly between Berbera and Raas Cuuda to the east. Other pelagic fishes that were observed at sea included schooling tuna (e.g. bonito), carcharinid sharks and whale sharks.

Pelagic fish were also frequently sighted during coral reef surveys, including large specimens of Sphyraena barracuda, Scomberomorus commerson and Trachinotus russellii.

CETACEANS

Small cetaceans are abundant in waters off Somaliland. A total of 35 sightings (Appendix 1) and five different species were recorded during the six day, boat-based survey, with the sighting frequency increasing with distance travelled. The majority of sightings were recorded in offshore waters.

School sizes varied between and within species, but included remarkably large schools of delphinids. One school of common dolphins (Delphinus delphis cf. capensis) numbered between 1 500 and 1 800 individuals, and both common and spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) were frequently observed in schools of between 300-1 000 individuals. Mixed schools of these two species were recorded on several occasions, and spinner dolphins were also recorded in association with spotted dolphins (S. attenuata) on one occasion.

The other two species recorded, the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) and bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops cf. aduncus), also formed mixed groups, although bottlenose dolphins were more commonly sighted alone and further offshore than the characteristically coastal humpback dolphins. School sizes of bottlenose dolphins generally varied between 2-35 animals (including an apparently resident group of 8-12 animals at the mouth of Berbera harbour) with one exceptionally large school of approximately 150 individuals. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins were seen in typically small groups up to a maximum of 15 individuals per group.

Mating behaviour was observed among spinner dolphins and calves of several species were recorded (Appendix 1). Feeding was observed in the vicinity of large shoals of fish in the case of the delphinids and bottlenose dolphins, and close inshore in the case of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, often in association with terns and gulls. With the exception of the humpback dolphins, the majority of dolphins approached the survey vessel, riding the bow wave and frequently leaping close to the boat.

Fishermen indicated that this is a common behaviour and that they consider dolphins to be `man's friend'. Large cetaceans were not observed but anecdotal reports indicated that baleen whales occur in the area (particularly further east) and apparently feed in Somaliland waters. The large numbers of small schooling fishes probably form the major prey of baleen whales as they do in the Arabian Sea to the north.

BIRDS

Sea and shore birds were recorded incidentally during boat surveys at sea and beach surveys. Crested Terns (S. bergii) were most commonly observed at sea, frequently feeding, and generally in pairs or small flocks. Terns and Gulls were expected to occur in larger numbers but were generally poorly represented, particularly as feeding aggregations over shoaling fishes.

Saunders's Little Terns (Sterna saundersi), Gull-billed Terns (Sterna gelochelidon) and White-eyed Gulls (Larus leucophthalmus) were observed in the greatest numbers (up to 140 individuals), both at sea (Appendix 1) and roosting on beaches (Appendix 2).

Phalaropes (Phalaropus lobatus) were also observed in relatively large flocks (between 20-120 individuals per flock), either settled on the water surface or flying, generally in an easterly direction (Appendix 1). Other species common at sea, albeit mostly in very small numbers, were Sooty Gulls (Larus hemprichii) and Herring Gulls (L. argentatus), whilst a number of tern species were seen on just one or two occasions, including Sandwich Terns (Sterna sandvicensis) and Bridled Terns (S. anaethetus).

An unidentified juvenile Petrel and a juvenile Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra melanops) were seen on one occasion (Appendix 1). Species such as the latter may occur more frequently later in the year.

Waders and shorebirds were encountered relatively infrequently and in small numbers. These included Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus), Redshank (Tringa totanus), Terek Sandpiper (Xenus cinereus), Reef Heron (Egretta gularis), Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola), Sanderling (Calidris alba), Whimbrel (Numerius phaeopus) and Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula), among others (Appendix 2).

Wheatears (Oenanthe spp.) and Hoopoe Larks (Alaemon alaudipes) were conspicuous in primary dunes behind beaches. Two Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) were seen roosting, one on a rocky headland and the other on the beach. No nesting by this species, or any other species, was noted.

BEACHES AND SANDY SUBSTRATA

Beaches and subtidal sandy substrata constituted the most extensive habitat on the north Somali coast. The beaches showed a clear monsoon storm berm above the present high water mark. The latter was littered with seaweed, some coral fragments and large numbers of shells, particularly shells of gastropods occupied by scavenging hermit crabs. Remarkably little pollution was found. Ghost crabs (Ocypode saratans) were prolific on some beaches. The origin and other attributes of the beaches have been described above. The details of the beaches surveyed are listed in Appendix 2.

The subtidal sandy substratum appears to be relatively sterile. Seaweed detritus had accumulated in the sand ripples in certain areas and a single concentration of holothurians was found next to one reef. Relatively dense concentrations (1 m-2 ) of the non-scleractinian coral ?Heterocyathus were found at another site, together with sparse algal growth and scattered Clypeaster sp., hydroids and sponges.

However, very few observations were made on the sand substratum because of time constraints and this environment may be inhabited by burrowing organisms such as bivalves. No evidence of their presence was found in beach litter.

TURTLES

The most significant turtle nesting beaches in the area were found between Raas Xaatib and Raas Cuuda (10o39.80'N; 45o90'70E to 10o26.55'N; 45o58.60'E. See Appendix 2). Concentrations of up to 14 nests were found on raised beach cusps and a total of 36 nests were recorded over a five km stretch of sandy beach in this region, representing the greatest nesting density encountered. Scattered nesting also occurs in areas east of Raas Cuuda. A single visit to beaches west of Berbera revealed additional nesting there (Appendix 2).

With just one exception, nests were from a previous season's activity, and were inconspicuous, having been largely covered by wind-blown sand. All nests were above the monsoon storm berm and it is likely that monsoon weather periodically washes away the evidence of nesting. Both of these factors may have lead to an underestimation of nesting activity.

Nests could rarely be attributed to species for these reasons as well as the lack of current nesting activity. A recent green turtle nest (Chelonia mydas) and several other nests from a previous season indicate that this species nests on beaches between Raas Xaatib and Raas Cuuda. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that this is the main species that nests here. Tracks (without a nest) of just one other turtle were found in this area, probably a hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) but possibly a loggerhead (Caretta caretta) or olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea).

With the exception of cuspate beaches between Raas Xaatib and Raas Cuuda, the beaches between Berbera and Raas Khansir are generally unsuitable for nesting turtles. This is largely due to natural geomorphological features, including monsoon induced- erosion extending up to the primary dunes on most beaches. Wind and current-induced erosion outside the monsoon season result in `stepped' beaches with extensive flooding between the beach crest and the primary dunes.

The evidence of turtle remains and sightings at sea suggest that green turtles and hawksbill turtles are the most common species in the area, while a single loggerhead turtle was seen at sea. A turtle tag from Oman was recently recovered in Somaliland and one from South Africa was recovered on the east coast of Somalia, indicating the range of these animals. The tag from Oman came from a female green turtle tagged on a nesting beach at Ra's al Hadd and was recovered after the animal drowned in a fishing net near Berbera.

Turtles were rarely observed at sea or underwater and were not observed feeding.

However, algal beds and coral reefs provide suitable habitat for this purpose. Seagrass beds, a favoured feeding ground of the green turtle, were not encountered, but scattered seagrasses were found among algal and coral communities and in beach litter. These included Halophila ovalis, Thalassia hemprichii and Thalassodendron ciliatum. Turtles were reported to feed in waters to the west of Berbera and particularly to the east of Raas Khansir.

The major threat to turtles arises from the opportunistic harvest of green turtles. Incidental gill net entrapment also results in some mortality. Natural threats to the eggs include the flooding of nests mentioned above and the likelihood of egg consumption by land mammals such as the hyena and jackal, the spoor of which were frequently seen.

Humans apparently collect turtle eggs during the Southwest Monsoon season. However, no evidence of disturbed nests was found. Hatchlings are likely to fall victim to predators on land and at sea.

Harvesting of green turtles is widespread and appears to be most intense at Khoor Shoora and near the seasonal fishing village of Karin. Evidence suggested that only green turtles are harvested. The carapace of one was offered for sale in Berbera for US$5. A total of four hawksbill turtle remains and the remains of six unidentified turtles were also found. The number of turtle remains on beaches may have been underestimated due to scavenging by hyenas and jackals.

Nesting by turtles has apparently declined substantially during the past ten years and the ongoing harvest of turtles and their eggs is a cause for concern and management intervention.

ROCKY SHORES

As stated, these were only found near Raas Khansir, at Raas Cuuda and at the foot of the cliffs at Siyara. The intertidal zone had a clear band of Saccostrea cucullata, some whelks (Nerita sp.) and grapsid crabs. No corals were observed in the subtidal region, which was also sparsely vegetated with few algae, probably because of surf energy.

CORAL REEFS

Reefs were found between 1-10 m and appeared to originate from fossilised beach rock. They thus appear to represent a submerged coastline and were patchy. Coral reefs of limited extent were found near Raas Khansir, of fairly limited extent at Raas Cuuda and Siyara, and of considerable extent off El Girdi and west of Berbera (Appendix 3).

The coral communities varied considerably in their condition (Appendix 3). Bleaching had affected all of the reefs to some degree. The shallow reefs (1-2 m) to the west of Berbera were slightly bleached and those <1 m appeared to have died from tidal exposure. The shallow reefs to the east of Berbera were far more severely affected by bleaching and, in many instances, had suffered nearly total mortality and become both encrusted and accreted by coralline algae. Montipora stellata had commenced recolonisation of these areas.

Deeper reefs (2-5 m) were in better condition. Patchy reefs subject to considerable sedimentation were dominated by sediment tolerant faviids, while more established reefs were dominated by Porites spp. and plate Montipora spp.

Astreopora myriophthalma was conspicuous on the deepest reefs (5-10 m) and manifested recovery from crown-of-thorns (COTS) predation. Three COTS were found on one reef.

The living coral cover varied between 0-60% on reefs affected by the bleaching and COTS phenomena, the average being between 2-5%. Reefs not so affected had a coral cover ranging between 60-80%. As these constituted a fairly narrow fringing band on the outer perimeter of the reefs, there was relatively little healthy coral.

A total of 74 species of scleractinian coral, 11 species of alcyonacean (soft) coral and two species of fire coral were found during the survey. The identities of some of the corals, and therefore the species list, is provisional until microscopic work on their taxonomy can be completed in the laboratory. Other reef organisms encountered during the field work were sparse and included only five Panulirus versicolor, two specimens of two species of anemones, five specimens of Tridacna spp. and various sponges, ascidians, holothurians, echinoids, crinoids, molluscs and zoanthids.

SEAWEED

Seaweed (Table 4) were widespread in patches and beds on hard substratum, both in the inshore area and in deeper water (<10 m) that is sedimented to a varying degree. Their prevalence on substrata, which would otherwise appear more suitable for corals, is probably due to a combination of physico-chemical factors. These would include the levels of turbidity and sedimentation that were observed, as well as the nutrient enrichment emanating from these factors and regional upwelling. A range of green, brown and red algae were recorded (including alginophytes, agarophytes and carrageenophytes). Extensive stands of large brown macrophytes were often the dominant algae, including Nizamuddinia zanardinii (a species previously thought to be restricted to the Arabian region and the Socotra Archipelago) and Sargassum spp. (3). Sheets of Zoanthus sansibaricus and a number of sponges were associated with the deeper algal beds.

Rafts of algal detritus were seen drifting over the seabed, floating on the sea surface in the inshore region and stranded on the beach. The algal production and detritus possibly provide a key driving force in the productivity of the area and bear further study.

MANGROVE

The extensive lagoon at Khoor Shoora is bounded by a fringe of Avicennia marina. It is characterised by clean sediment, clear water and prolific seaweed growth; there appeared to be little freshwater input. There are a few temporary fishing shelters at the lagoon near which a small number of gill nets were found. Fishermen reported the occasional capture of a "sea cow" in the lagoon but no skeletal remains of dugongs were found. However, Somaliland may lie within the range of the Red Sea population and dugong migrations were reported in early literature. A number of turtle skeletons were found in the vicinity of the shelters but the fishermen denied their consumption. Little evidence of timber extraction was found and very little appears to be used as firewood. The fauna in the area included a number of birds, abundant juvenile fishes and mud crabs.

HUMAN ACTIVITY AND FISHERIES

The most extensive use of the marine resources in the study area occurs at Berbera, Siyara and Karin, yet on a small scale. Small canoes are launched from these sites to set a limited number of 7, 15 and 30cm stretch mesh size gill nets.

Handling fishing was observed on one occasion. The greatest number of canoes seen at any time at sea between Berbera and Raas Khansir was 6 and only 20 such craft were reported to operate between Zeila and Karin. Turtles appear to be harvested opportunistically, both by jigging and harpooning at sea and through the capture of nesting turtles (as described above). Both fishermen and nomadic herdsmen are probably responsible for the latter; herders have temporary shelters and animal pens on certain beaches.

Apart from the COOPI operation at Berbera, the most organised fishing activity was found at the temporary fishing village at Karin. Fish drying racks, a generator and two chest freezers were observed and 30 fishermen counted during a visit to the village. The fishing also appears to be fairly organised at Siyara as gill nets are permanently set around the coral reefs at this site. Sharks are especially targeted in these operations with only the valuable fins being landed; this is largely due to a lack of refrigeration. The mangrove crab, Scylla serrata, appears to be the only invertebrate, which is harvested. These were seen in the market in Berbera but their origin was unknown.

PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS AND KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

The area surveyed is both productive and relatively pristine apart from the deleterious effects of coral bleaching and, to a lesser extent, COTS predation on the coral reefs. The effects of human activity on the environment appear to be minimal, the only exceptions being the relatively heavy, opportunistic exploitation of turtles and wasteful harvest of sharks. The coast thus provides a number of opportunities for forward planning to accommodate biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

Actions taken now will safeguard the potential value of the Somaliland coast for future use. The following key recommendations should thus be considered with regard to:

Threats and safeguards to the Somali environment

- The proclamation of small "biosphere" reserves or marine protected areas (MPAs) between Raas Xaatib and Raas Cuuda, west of the lighthouse near Berbera Airport and around the coral reefs opposite Siyara. This will provide protection for representative seaweed beds, coral reefs and turtle nesting beaches in each area and safeguard these valuable resources for future use (see below). Biosphere reserves would attract more donor support from agencies such as UNESCO than MPAs.

- Regulation of the harvesting of turtles and their eggs to alleviate their present endangerment. This could be achieved through co-operation between Somali technical personnel and foreign fisheries agencies under the auspices of the Somaliland Aid Co-ordination Body.

- The continued, limited use of fishing nets and an investigation of alternative techniques for the sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources without endangering turtles, marine mammals and other marine life of biodiversity/conservation value. The fisheries are lightly exploited at this stage but should not be extended without undertaking the assessments needed to ensure their sustainability (see below). The fish stocks associated with the limited and depleted coral reefs should be given special attention and protection.

- A more detailed investigation of the coastal resources in participation with the user groups (nomads, fishermen etc) to develop an understanding of their seasonal exploitation and use, leading to a joint development of resource management procedures.

- Coastal mapping and zonation in terms of sensitivity and suitability for development should be commenced with the ultimate objective of coastal zone policy development and administration.

A review of the legal and institutional framework

- Review existing legal, institutional and resource requirements for conservation management. Develop these, as appropriate, and make provision for co-operation between government, non-government and private sectors.

- Review relevant international and regional conventions and the options for participation in international and regional initiatives.

- Review, develop and implement existing Environmental Impact Assessment policies and instruments in Somaliland with regard to the marine and coastal environment.

Any new fishery proposals should be subject to EIAs to alleviate deleterious effects of the fishery on the environment, target species, bycatch and endangered species such as turtles. This could again be executed under the auspices of the Somaliland Aid Co-ordination Body.

- Integrate environmental education into existing community and educational programmes and curricula.

Potential future development

- Investigate the establishment of small ecotourism ventures near Berbera and Siyara for the eventual development of tourism in the area. These resorts would make use of the proposed conservation areas and would focus on reef diving, dolphin watching, seasonal turtle nesting and water sports.

- Investigate the sustainable harvest of algae and its conversion into fertiliser with livestock manure and the presently wasted shark harvest.

- Investigate the viability of seaweed culture on the shallow sand flats in the upper reaches of Berbera Harbour.

- Consider the appointment of an environmental officer at Berbera Harbour to initiate a programme of marine environmental management and pollution control.

Biodiversity conservation

- Extend the turtle surveys to both the west and east.

- Extend the coral reef surveys both to the west and east. The degraded condition of this valuable and limited resource and its importance in the Somali marine environment render this essential.

- Monitor the coral reefs for further deterioration or recovery from COTS outbreaks and bleaching.

- Further investigate the biodiversity of the reef fishes and extend the work into a regional study of their zoogeography. This will establish the extent of endemism and the effects of reef degradation on this important resource.

- Further assess the extent and role of the seaweed beds and associated detritus in the productivity of the area, both regionally and seasonally.

- Assess the effects of overgrazing on soil erosion and its consequences on the marine environment.

- Further study the distribution, abundance and stock affinities of cetaceans in Somali waters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the following for assistance with this study:

Mr Tony Potterton and Dr Rod Salm of the IUCN (EARO) provided funding and logistical support for the survey as well as valuable comments and advice in the production of the manuscript. Ms Amina Abdalla of the IUCN office in Somaliland assisted us with our arrangements in Hargeisa.

Mr Tiziano Pagliara and Ms Paola Polese provided accommodation and excellent catering within the COOPI hostel in Berbera. Tiziano Pagliara also piloted the COOPI craft, which was generously made available for the sea work, with his boat crew, Faisal and Mohammed Hassan. Messrs Yussuf Abdullahi Nur, Ahmed Abdullahi Yassin and Osman Daror Hassan of COOPI provided office facilities, field support and translations when needed.

The Somaliland Minister of Fisheries, Mr Ahmed Hussein Omane, and the Director- General of Fisheries, Mr Ahmed Jama Hurreh, supported and facilitated the work in Somaliland. Sultan Abdillahi Cali Muusa and Sultan Mohamoud Guleed Mire similarly hosted and facilitated our visit to the fishing village at Karin.

Ms Charlene Nell kindly assisted with the final lay out and production of the manuscript at ORI.

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RICHMOND, M.D., ed., 1997. A guide to the seashores of eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean islands. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), Stockholm. 448p.

SHEPPARD, C.R.C. & SHEPPARD, A.L.S. 1991. Corals and coral communities of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 12: 1-170.

SOMMER, C., SCHNEIDER, W. & POUTIERS, J-M., 1996. The living marine resources of Somalia. FAO, Rome. 376p., 32 colour plates.

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APPENDIX 1 AND II omitted: