by John Miskell
May 2000

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Gacaan Libaax is a highland area reaching 1,718.9m (c. 5,640') above sea level in north western Somalia. It is representative of a large highland ecosystem in northern Somalia, which extends far to the east, and which receives moisture in the form of mist, as maritime air is forced up over the area. This moisture helps to support patches of forest, which themselves facilitate the formation and entrapment of mist in a self-contained system. If the forest is degraded the cycle may be broken. Since the area is also an important water catchment for a wide area, it is important that this system continues to function.

As there have been no comprehensive reports on the status of Gacaan Libaax in recent years, this study was undertaken to ascertain the current condition of the ecosystem. It was also intended to determine appropriate steps to be taken with the local communities to ensure its conservation and continued support for livelihoods in the area. In addition, it was to provide information useful for subsequent activities in other parts of this extensive ecosystem, as this becomes possible. The primary purpose of this study is to lay the groundwork for future discussions with the local people and administration, which will empower them to effectively manage their natural resources.

Gacaan Libaax is an ecologically important area which is representative of similar areas to the east as far as 49E.

Historically most of the massif was once covered by Juniperus procera forest, which was formed in an earlier period of higher rainfall. Through burning, overgrazing, soil erosion, and desiccation the forest has gradually retracted to the narrow, steep sided western third of the mountain. It is maintained only by the mountain's altitude, which attracts higher rainfall than the rest of the area, and by the mist which forms during the cold months of November - February, when moist air from the Gulf of Aden condenses as it rises up the northern escarpment of the mountain.

The mix of plant species on the massif is probably much as it was a hundred years or more ago, but drier and more degraded. The `mist' forest on Gacaan Libaax is less extensive than formerly, and now confined to the western third of the massif. The land becomes more open to the east, with forest gradating to open bush and then to grassland. Currently the area is being overgrazed, resulting in the loss of soil and the natural vegetation.

The population of large mammals has been severely depleted, and many species, such as elephant and Soemmering's Gazelle have been extirpated. However Greater Kudu and Klipspringer may still be seen, Speke's Gazelle is still found on the eastern grasslands and on the plains to the south, and the rare Beira is said to survive, but is seldom seen.

The local people are well aware of the importance of Gacaan Libaax to their livelihoods, particularly because of its grazing and water resources. But the loss of much of their traditional communal grazing to the spread of private livestock exclosures, the increase in livestock numbers, and the lack of law enforcement has forced them to rely more and more on the mountain's resources. This has resulted in serious overgrazing and soil erosion, which the local community feels powerless to halt. They believe that, without external enforcement, provided by the central government, they cannot regain control of their resources.

The main recommendation is for SNRMP to investigate the possibility of working together with the local people and the Ministry of Rural Development and Environment to produce and implement a land management plan.

Any such plan should encompass the entire Gacaan Libaax - Go'oo area, as the mountain cannot be protected in isolation from its surroundings, and the local people use it as one component of their traditional grazing system. The core of the plan would probably consist of a grazing block rotation plan having the full support and agreement of the local users. This may be similar to the one previously introduced by the Northern Rangelands Project, but would be community-developed and managed, and would take into consideration the grazing lands of the surrounding communities, as they share grazing rights with the people of Go'oo in times of drought. The management plan could also include tree nurseries and enrichment planting of rare or overused tree and grass species. Some of the existing livestock exclosures could be maintained to provide grass seed for enrichment planting, combined with a rotational closing of large grazing blocks to permit regeneration of the natural vegetation. Periodic closure of the Juniper forest on Gacaan Libaax is crucial to its survival, but until the surrounding area is opened up and rehabilitated this will be problematic.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IUCN/SNRMP:
- Hargeisa office (for logistical support): Amina Abdalla, Axmed, Jirdeh Axmed.
- For collecting information in the field: Safia Jibriil and Xasan Cadnan.
- Nairobi office: for information on Gacaan Libaax: E. Barrow and A. Potterton.
- EC Somalia Unit: For funding of SNRMP and this assessment.

Ministry of Rural Development and Environment, Hargeisa:
- Maxamed Muuse Cawaale - Minister, and former Director of the Northern Rangelands Project from 1979, for sharing his considerable knowledge of the Gacaan Libaax area during two meetings in Hargeisa.
- Axmed Jaamac Sugulle - for his excellent company on the trip to Gacaan Libaax, and for his considerable enthusiasm, knowledge of plants, and skill as a translator.

The people of Go'oo Village:
- for their hospitality, and for providing information, and in particular the elders who spent the week on Gacaan Libaax with me.
- Muuse Cilmi Faarax - a local leader and area military commander during the recent war.
- Cabdillaahi Cabdi Guuleed - a local elder who has grazed cattle on Gacaan Libaax for most of his 65 years.
- Ibraahim Maxamed - former Forest Ranger on Gacaan Libaax from 1952.
- Maxamed Xirse - former Forest Guard on Gacaan Libaax from 1957.
- Cali Boqore - local elder and Chairman of the Village Central Committee, who joined us on Gacaan Libaax for a morning of discussions.

INTRODUCTION

The IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office is implementing Phase II of the Somali Natural Resources Management Programme (SNRMP) with funding from the EC. The Programme aims to improve the socio-economic well being of Somali people by enhancing the ecological sustainability of natural resource use for dependent production systems.

To further this goal, a consultancy was planned to improve the understanding of a particular important ecosystem, the Gacaan Libaax highlands, and its use in sustaining the livelihoods of local communities. It also was intended to lay the basis for possible participatory land use planning activities. Through the involvement of a Somali professional in the assessment, and collaboration with the Ministry of Rural Development and Environment, local capacity was strengthened.

As there have been no comprehensive reports on the status of Gacaan Libaax in recent years, this study was needed to ascertain the current condition of the ecosystem. It is also required to determine appropriate steps to be taken with the local communities to ensure its conservation and continued support for livelihoods in the area.

In addition, it will provide information useful for subsequent activities in other parts of this extensive ecosystem, as this becomes possible.

The primary purpose of this study was, therefore, to lay the groundwork for future discussions with the local people and administration, which will empower them to effectively manage their natural resources.

METHODOLOGY

The author has relied on four sources of information to complete this study:

- Published Information
- Group and individual interviews with local people
- Personal observations from previous visits to Gacaan Libaax in 1982 and 1988
- Ground surveys on Gacaan Libaax from 22-28 June 1999.

The best description of the vegetation types on Gacaan Libaax is that of Hemming (1966), contained in only two paragraphs that describe the forest as it was when he visited it in the early 1960s. However, he also includes as an appendix the story of an old man from the area, Ahmed Naleya, which was collected by the botanist P. E. Glover in 1947. Hemming does not comment on the fauna of the area, but Ahmed Naleya recalls what was there when he was young. Funaioli and Simonetta (1966) give the status of large mammals in Somalia and, to some degree, fill in the historical gap. The present and past observations of the local people have been combined with my own observations from 1982 and during this consultancy to make the comparison below.

The best sources of information on the birds of Somalia are Archer and Godman (1937, 1962), and Ash and Miskell (1998).

Two local IUCN Somali staff, Safia Jibriil and Xasan Cadnan, together with Axmed Jaamac Sugulle from the Ministry of Rural Development and Environment, held group meetings with local leaders and a large number of male and female resource users in the village of Go'oo on 24 and 25 June. The information collected by them has been incorporated into the discussion below.

Throughout the period of this consultancy the consultant was accompanied by Axmed Jaamac Sugulle, who acted as a translator for me during my meetings with the local people.

During our stay on Gacaan Libaax from 22-28 June we were accompanied by two former local forest department employees, Ibraahim Maxamed and Maxamed Xirse, as well as by two men who keep livestock in the area, Cabdillaahi Cabdi Guuleed, a 65 year old local elder, and Muuse Cilmi Faarax. For one morning Cali Boqore, a village elder, who is also the Chairman of the Village Central Committee, joined us in our discussions. All of these men knew the area intimately, and were of great assistance. Cabdillaahi, in particular, was an invaluable source of information. Two meetings were also held with Maxamed Muuse Cawaale, the Minister of Rural Development and Environment in Hargeysa. The first just before our trip to Gacaan Libaax, the second on our return. The Minister knew the area well, having previously been the director of the Northern Rangelands Project from 1979.

To make a visual assessment of the area several long transects were made on foot while on Gacaan Libaax. All of these trips were made together with Axmed Jaamac Sugulle and at least one of the local informants. Several trips were made between the camp on Gacaan Libaax (shown by the oval at c. 0952'N,4450'E, just west of the highest point at 1,718.9 m, see Fig 1) and the village of Go'oo. These trips provided good views of the southern plains area of Gacaan Libaax. A trip was made by car from the camp eastwards along the road to Iskudar to as far as where the Garbo Kayle plain meets the Bokh plain at the eastern edge of Gacaan Libaax. From this point (marked by an asterisk on the map) a foot trip was made north to where the Dox Midhiqane (a dox is a seasonal watercourse which cuts a ravine into the side of the escarpment) separates the north eastern prominence of the massif (Go'an) from the rest of Gacaan Libaax. From there, we walked south and then west, as close to the northern escarpment as possible, back to the camp. Several foot trips (see Timetable in Annex) were undertaken in the area to the west of the camp; one to Dibi Ka Bood, the westernmost spur of the escarpment. During all of these trips, careful note was taken of the vegetation and the condition of the soil. We also watched out for wildlife and birds.

BACKGROUND

Ecology

Gacaan Libaax is a highland area reaching 1,718.9m (c. 5,640') above sea level in north western Somalia. It is representative of a large highland ecosystem in northern Somalia, which extends far to the east, and which receives moisture in the form of mist, as maritime air is forced up over the area. This moisture helps support patches of forest, which themselves facilitate the formation and entrapment of mist in a self-contained system, and if the forest is degraded the cycle may be broken. Since the area is also an important water catchment for a wide area, it is vital that this system continues to function.

Gacaan Libaax is also a source of natural goods and services for local communities. The large settlement of Go'oo has traditionally used the area for seasonal grazing, as a grazing reserve in years of drought, and as a source of other products. It had been reported that there is interest among local communities in reviving their previous management arrangements, which would provide the basis for sustainable use and improved conservation of the resources of the area.

Gacaan Libaax's `mist forest' is composed of Juniperus procera (Dayib), Buxus hildebrandtii (Dosoq), and Euphorbia grandis (Xasaadin) representing the extreme western area of this ecosystem, which stretches across the north of Somalia to about 49E longitude. It is also the habitat for a number of bird and mammal species with limited ranges and specific habitat requirements, such as the Beira Dorcatragus megalotis and the Somali Blackbird Turdus olivaceus ludoviciae.

Hemming (1966) estimated that only about 1160 km2 of Juniperus forest remained in Somalia in 1957, most of it to the east of Gacaan Libaax. He considered the Juniperus forest of Gacaan Libaax to be a climatic relict, because of the absence of the lichen Usnea articulata on the trees, which indicates that that there is insufficient moisture from mist and rain to support them, and the lack of juniper regeneration. Gilliland (1952) considered the whole of the evergreen montane formation to be "both relict, in the sense that it has probably survived from an age of greater rainfall, and post-climax in that it only exists because of the elevation of the crest of the escarpment into a `mist' zone".

Management and Use

During the late colonial period government-initiated natural resource management began on Gacaan Libaax. The first forest guards were hired in 1950, cement-lined `barkads' (reservoirs) were constructed to collect water, and some bunds were built to slow water run-off and soil erosion. In the early 1970s the Somali Government constructed many more bunds, and the vegetation, particularly the grasses, improved significantly. After the drought of 1973-74, all grazing on the mountain was stopped until 1978, to let the vegetation recover.

Thereafter grazing was only permitted from December through February, to prevent overgrazing. This system disintegrated once fighting began between the government and the local people in the 1980s.

Then during the troubles of the 1990s much of the grazing land in the area was closed off by the construction of thorn fences. This was done by individuals for use by their own livestock, for farms, or to grow grass for sale, particularly to livestock exporters at the port of Berbera. This practice has left Gacaan Libaax as virtually the only open communal grazing in the area.

The new central government's fiscal resources are limited, and it has little presence in the area around Gacaan Libaax. There are no schools, health facilities, or police in the area, and no local tax collection. Government in the area now consists of two committees, both selected by the people; the village committee and the clan committee. The clan committee is very scattered, with members as far away as Burco and Hargeysa. The village committee is, therefore, the most important local administrative structure. This committee is made up of seven members chosen from the seven local sub-clans, and a chairman.

Description of Gacaan Libaax

Physical

The Gacaan Libaax massif forms part of the southern escarpment of the Gulf of Aden, which is the eastern branch of the Great Rift Valley. The massif is made of uplifted limestone that tilts gradually to the south and east from the very steep escarpment to the north and west (see map, and photo1, taken from south of Gacaan Libaax). The top is flat and forms a plain, which is very narrow to the west, and wider in the east. In the west, it is only about 200-500 m wide, whereas in the east it is about 12 km wide. The main features are as follows:

- Gacaan Libaax proper - this is the narrow 6 km long western arm of the mountain, from the area of the camp to Dibi Ka Bood. The Dox Surud nearly cuts the western part off from the rest, with only perhaps 10 m of flat ground remaining on the northern edge. The small westernmost spur, Dibi Ka
Bood, is actually already cut off by a deep crevasse about 1.5 m wide.
- Adaadi - this is the area along the northern escarpment for about 2 km east of the camp.
- Bidhan - This is the 2 or 3 km stretch east of Adaadi along the northern escarpment.
- Waraabe Case - This is the large plains area south of Bidhan and extending eastwards to the plain of Garbo Kayle, from which it is separated in the north by the Dox Waraabe Case, and in the south by the Dox Jidhi Weyn.
- Garbo Kayle - This is the second large plain, which lies between Waraabe Case to the west and Bokh to the east. Locals consider its eastern edge to run southwards from the Dox Berde Xaaxle, and to be the eastern edge of Gacaan Libaax.
- Bokh - This is the third and easternmost of the plains. It ends at the Tog Gal Cad seasonal watercourse, beyond which lie the Golis Mountains to the east. The Tog Gal Cad is the headwater of the large Tog Dheer, which lends its name to the Tog Dheer Region of Somaliland.

Flora

- Gacaan Libaax proper:
- This is the true area of `mist forest'. In its species composition, it is probably more or less the same as it was over a century ago, but drier and more degraded. Formerly there were "permanent running springs in every hollow", now there is just one permanent well in the bed of a Dox.

The forest here consists of large, old Juniperus procera, mixed with tree-sized Buxus hildebrandtii and Euphorbia grandis. There are also still a few Olea africana (`Weger') and Ficus sp (`Berde'). Small openings and the edges of larger openings have a shrub flora of Buxus, Cadia purpurea (`Salemac'), Sideroxylon buxifolium (`Shooy'), Dodonea viscosa (`Xayramad'), and Euclea schimperi (`Maayeer'). A number of Draceana ombet (`Mooli'), or `Dragon's Blood' shrubs were seen on the north-western escarpment just below the rim. There are a number of small open plains with grass and a few shrubs.

The largest of these is Dheg Mud, which is almost in the centre of the area, and probably covers about 3 ha. The area is bisected by a wide livestock path that runs across its entire length from east to west, and is eroded down to bare rock in many places. In general the soil appears to be fairly shallow, with rock outcrops in many places, including Dibi Ka Bood, which is almost virgin grassland. Heavy grazing and the movement of livestock are causing serious soil erosion in some areas. Very little regeneration of Juniperus was seen, and all appeared to be from suckers. The local people say the area is now severely over-grazed in comparison to 40 years ago, and there is much more gully erosion. Some plants, particularly the preferred grass species, Chrysopogon plumulosus (`Dhareemo'), are much reduced, and "there are only old trees, no young ones". The almost ungrazed area of Dibi Ka Bood has much Chrysopogon and is said to be little changed.

- Adaadi - This area is also said to have changed little in the last 40 years, except that some of the Juniperus trees have `dried out' (died back from the top), and the old bunds have eroded away. It is an easterly projection of the forest to the west, and is fairly narrow. It is confined to within about 0.5 km of the northern escarpment. No severe soil erosion was seen here, and there is some regeneration of Juniperus, with both suckers and seedlings being observed under old trees.

- Bidhan - This area still has some old, live Juniperus and many dead ones. It is now mostly what Hemming (1966) calls `evergreen scrub', a vegetation type which normally occurs along the edge of Juniperus forest in Somalia. It consists mostly of Buxus, Cadia, and Dodonea, with some Acacia etbaica coming in. Historically this area used to be Juniperus forest, but "now the big trees are mostly dead and bush is encroaching". Soil erosion is becoming a problem. Glover (1951) says that on Gacaan Libaax, "Juniperus procera has a shallow lateral root system with roots up to 10 m in length, but poorly developed for the size of the trees. These trees are easily blown over by wind, and are very vulnerable to overgrazing, trampling and soil erosion." Photo 2 of two dead juniper trees in the Bidhan area, well illustrates the shallow, lateral root systems of these trees.

- Waraabe Case - About 110 years ago (around 1890) this area was still Juniperus forest, with only a few small grassy openings. By 1947, the area was already an open plain, covered by Chrysopogon plumulosus grass with a few Acokanthera schimperi (Wabay) trees and shrubby Acacia etbaica (Sogsog).

The vegetation was still the same in the early 1960s, but there was large-scale soil erosion to the south (see photo 3, looking across Waraabe Case to the south). The soil is still deep in the central part of the plain, but the soil erosion is very severe in both the south, and now along the northern edge as well. In places Acokanthera trees may be seen with about a metre of their root systems exposed by erosion (see photos 4, taken to the south, and 5, taken in the north). The local people are well aware of the soil erosion problem, and say that it is due to the loss of the old bunds and overgrazing. They also say that the amount of Acacia etbaica bush is increasing. This is not surprising, since bush encroachment is a common phenomenon in overgrazed grasslands. The Juniperus trees along the edge of the northern escarpment are now nearly all dead. The local people agree that the area used to be forest, but is now mostly bush. In addition to the natural vegetation of Gacaan Libaax, the British colonial forestry department experimented with a variety of exotic tree species there in the 1950s. The main species planted was Eucalyptus camaldulensis, which is found in several small plantations, all of which are doing very poorly. Cupressus sp. and Casuarina equisetifolia are also found in small numbers, and may possibly be reproducing there.

- Dox Jidhi Weyn - This is a very large seasonal watercourse that flows southwards, and separates the Waraabe Case plain from the Garbo Kayle plain. It shows severe water erosion, but the locals say that it is otherwise unchanged, with much Acacia etbaica bush.

- Garbo Kayle - The Juniperus forest used to extend across the northern escarpment edge as far as this area, and the gully (Dox Garbo Kayle) used to be full of Juniperus. The plain had many Acokanthera trees in 1947, but it is now very stony and grassy (see photo 6, looking WNW towards the western end of Gacaan Libaax). The local people say that the area has not changed much in their experience, and that it has always been stony and grassy. However, the present near absence of Acokanthera would indicate that much soil has been lost since 1947.

- Bokh - This was apparently a grassy plain with scattered Acokanthera 110 years ago, but many of the trees were gone by 1947. It is now a stony plain with few shrubs and no trees (see photo 7, looking east across Bokh towards the Golis Mountains in the distance). Informants stated that "the topsoil has washed away, and gully erosion has begun, but the grass has not been much affected'.

- Go'an - Another stony plain, and the northernmost prominence of Gacaan Libaax. There are still a few live Juniperus trees along the edge of the escarpment, but many more dead ones. There is still one live tree just back from the escarpment and south of the Dox Midhiqane (see photo 8, looking towards the north westernmost point of Gacaan Libaax in the distance). When asked about the dying off of the Juniperus the local people said that "the area has always been mostly grass, with only a few trees. So even though the few Juniperus trees are dead or dying, we can't say that there has been a big change".

Fauna

- Gacaan Libaax proper - This area has always been forested, and held forest animals. There used to be 200 or more elephants living in the forest of Gacaan Libaax, but they left in the early 1890s. Around the same time, "before the Somalis had rifles, they used to burn large patches of the forest to drive out the lions which were very numerous, that is how a great many trees were killed out". Lions are no longer present on the mountain. Also at that time "in the bush were numbers of Greater Kudu". During our trek to the westernmost part of Gacaan Libaax we twice saw the tracks of a Greater Kudu near the Dox Surud, a Klipspringer was spotted, and a family of Warthog were seen on the Dheg Mud opening. The next day it was reported that a female Greater Kudu with two young had been seen on the edge of the Dheg Mud (see map). So while there are still some forest animals remaining, it is obvious that they are much depleted.

- Adaadi, Bidhan and Waraabe Case - The only wildlife seen during the survey in these formerly forested areas were Hamadryas Baboons and Warthogs.

- Garbo Kayle and Bokh - In the early 1890s "the plains around were full of Hartebeest, Oryx, Soemmering's Gazelle and Speke's Gazelle". By 1947 the Hartebeest and Oryx were gone. The Hartebeest (Swayne's Hartebeest) is now extinct in Somalia, having finally died out there during a rinderpest epidemic in the 1950s, and Oryx is very rare in the vicinity of Gacaan Libaax and Go'oo. In 1982 both Soemmering's and Speke's Gazelle were present on the Garbo Kayle plain. During the 1999 visit only six Speke's Gazelle on north west Garbo Kayle, and five more on the Ununuf plain south west of Go'oo Village, were seen, in an area where they used to be common. Local informants told us that Soemmering's Gazelle is now extinct in the area, and Speke's is greatly reduced, as is the rare Beira.

They also said that Ostrich used to be found on the plains areas of Gacaan Libaax, but is now also extinct there. However, six R?ppell's Griffon Vultures were seen rising up out of the Dox Garbo Kayle. They are said to roost regularly on its cliffs, and may possibly breed there. This is a very uncommon bird in Somalia, particularly since the massive hyaena poisoning campaign of the 1970s. We also saw a very golden coloured cobra (Naja sp.) in the same area.

Current Utilisation and Local Attitudes Towards Gacaan Libaax

- Utilisation

The people of the Gacaan Libaax area use a variety of its resources in different ways:
- Water from the mountain, from both rainfall and the condensation of mist, provides an important resource, which is scarce in the surrounding area. While the perennial springs which used to be found on the mountain are now dry most of the year, some still flow from the north face during the period of heavy mists (November-February), and are an important source of seasonal water for the people living below the northern slopes of the mountain. There is still one permanent well in the bed of the Dox Kabcun Weyne on the south western side of the mountain, which is used for both human and livestock consumption throughout the year. Rainwater pools in the beds of several of these seasonal watercourses provide water for part of the dry season. Some of the old cement-lined reservoirs (`Barkads') which collect rainwater in the area of the camp are still used to water livestock grazing on the mountain, but are in need of repair. Rainwater run-off down the slopes of the massif also support the growth of livestock fodder in animal exclosures, and `Qat' (Catha edulis), a shrub containing a mild stimulant in its leafs and tender shoots, which is popular with the local men. The importance of the mountain as a watershed goes well beyond the immediate area, since it forms the headwaters of the Tog Dheer watercourse. This stream does not reach the ocean, but flows onto a large plain to the south east, where its waters provide good grass growth and a very important grazing resource.

- Tree resources from the mountain are also used in a variety of ways. The most obvious is the extraction of poles and timber, primarily from Juniperus and Buxus, for use in local building construction. This is still continuing, although at a much slower rate than was the case in May 1988, and the people of Go'oo are attempting to stop it altogether. In the past these materials were also exported to Arabia. Other tree resources still being used are the wood of Euphorbia grandis for poles and the making of bowls, and Ficus sp. for bowls and its fruit. The bark of the same Ficus sp.

is also used for making rope, as is that of Acacia etbaica, and the wood of Buxus and Olea are used for making various utensils. Euclea and Cadia are used medicinally, the former providing a laxative for people, and the latter being used in the preparation of a tick dip for livestock. Most of these uses, apart from timber and pole extraction, are sustainable at current rates, but Olea is now quite rare on Gacaan Libaax, and its use should be discouraged. Probably the most important use of tree resources on Gacaan Libaax is as browse for livestock.

- The grazing of livestock on the mountain is considered to be its most important use. It has the highest rainfall and fodder production in the area and is free range, open to everyone in the community. However, grazing is clearly not restricted to the area of Gacaan Libaax. In normal years the people of the area graze their livestock north as far as Iskudar (see attached map), south God Waraabe, east to Go' Yar (just off the map to the east), and west to Deri Cadaale. But in years of poor rain they may move as far north as the shore of the Gulf of Aden, and/or south to the `haud' region along the Ethiopian border. In order to do this they must enter and pass through the lands of other clans and sub-clans, with whom they have reciprocal agreements that permit these other clans entry to their grazing areas in times of need (see attached migration map).

Attitudes:

The local people very well understand the environment in which they live, and have a very positive attitude towards it. Specific examples of this are:

- The association of the juniper trees with the annual mist, occurring from November through February. It is believed that "the mist is attracted by the trees, and the trees cannot survive without the mist; one cannot occur without the other". Because of this the people strongly believe that the trees must be protected. But surprisingly they also said that their livestock do not eat the juniper seedlings. This is in direct contradiction to the observations of all the professional botanists who have visited Somalia's juniper forests from the 1940s until now.

- It is believed the mist and the rainfall on the mountain, which gets the highest rainfall in the area, is the most important source of water locally, and a reason why Gacaan Libaax must be protected.

- The importance of the massif for its grazing resources is also recognized, and the fact that it is now seriously overgrazed. Overgrazing is attributed to several factors, the main one being the fencing of the traditionally open grazing areas by private individuals. Other reasons given were the increase in the livestock population due to the closure of the export market to Saudi Arabia at the time of the survey, and the lack of any central government authority to enforce the proper use of the area.

- Overgrazing is given as the main reason for the severe soil erosion which can be observed on Gacaan Libaax, and the erosion in turn is given as the reason why the juniper trees are dying out in many places. The people recognise overgrazing as a serious problem, and would like to do something to stop it. The local stakeholders would like to remove all of the private livestock exclosures to open the range again, but say they cannot do this without the assistance of the central government. In theory the Village Committee has the authority to do this, but people feel that it would cause far too much dissension within the clan if it was attempted. They believe that enforcement agents, provided by the central government, are a neutral third party, which could ensure implementation.

- The people also expressed an impressive knowledge of the use of bunds to slow water flow. They said that the bunds constructed on Gacaan Libaax in the early 1970s improved the quality of the grazing so much that none of the people from the area became refugees in 1974, when so many other families in northern Somalia lost all of their livestock and were resettled as farmers or fishermen.

- The people expressed a strong desire for a management plan to help them control their natural resources, in the area in general, and on Gacaan Libaax in particular. They requested the assistance of SNRMP and the Ministry of Rural Development and Environment to help them produce such a plan, and of the central government to help enforce it.

CONCLUSION

Gacaan Libaax is an ecologically important area which is representative of similar areas to the east as far as 49E.

In their unpublished report to IUCN, Bally and Melville (1973) include Gacaan Libaax first in a list of eight important floristic areas which they recommend to be gazetted as national parks, because of its unique flora, which included Mediterranean species. Historically most of the massif was once covered by Juniperus procera forest, which was formed in an earlier period of higher rainfall.

Through burning, overgrazing, soil erosion, and desiccation the forest has gradually retracted to the narrow, steep sided western third of the mountain. It is maintained only by the mountain's altitude, which attracts higher rainfall than the rest of the area, and by the mist which forms during the cold months of November - February, when moist air from the Gulf of Aden condenses as it rises up the northern escarpment of the mountain. Currently the area is being overgrazed, resulting in the loss of soil and the natural vegetation.

The local people are well aware of the importance of Gacaan Libaax to their livelihoods, particularly because of its grazing and water resources. But the loss of much of their traditional grazing to the spread of private livestock exclosures, the increase in livestock numbers, and the lack of law enforcement has forced them to rely more and more on the mountain's resources. This has resulted in serious overgrazing and soil erosion, which the local community feels powerless to halt. They believe that without police, provided by the central government, they cannot regain control of their resources. However, there is an agreement among the various stakeholders around the mountain that they will create a grazing reserve in the area if all the enclosures are destroyed and the traditional communal grazing rights are reinstated. This indicates that a sound, community-based land management plan for the area would be well received, and could work without substantial enforcement requirements.

RECOMMENDATIONS

- The Ministry of Rural Development and Environment has expressed an interest in reopening the grazing lands in the Gacaan Libaax area, and putting them under appropriate management. SNRMP should determine what support (advice and resources) may be needed from external sources to enable the Ministry to develop a management plan in collaboration with the local community. The ability of the central government to assist with enforcing a natural resources utilisation plan must also be determined.

- SNRMP should continue to collaborate with the Somaliland administration to meet with the local people of the Gacaan Libaax/Go'oo area to collect the data required to produce a management plan. This would include: vegetation samples to determine the carrying capacity of the range, changes in vegetation compared to earlier reports on the area, the numbers and types of livestock owned by the people in the area, the potential for current markets to absorb the surplus livestock and the role of fodder marketing. A proper stakeholder analysis including all business groups involved, and a proper understanding of the issues and of any existing rules and regulations, is therefore necessary.

- Any plan must take into account the entire area, not just Gacaan Libaax. The mountain is only one part of a large and complex grazing block utilised by the people of the area, and cannot possibly be protected in isolation from its surroundings. The area covered should extend north to Iskuder and the northern slopes of the mountain, south to God Waraabe, east to Go'Yar, and west to Deri Cadaale. The plan should also take into consideration the reciprocal grazing agreements that the local people have with people in a wide surrounding area to share grazing resources in times of drought. This extends northwards to the Gulf of Aden and south to the Ethiopian border (as shown on the attached migration map).

- A plan should also recognise the fact that the local people are very familiar with the principles of range management and will be willing, and essential participants in its production. Issues which must be discussed with the stakeholders, and acted on through implementation of the management plan, are grazing rights, the role (if any) of exclosures for fodder production, the levels of livestock holding, marketing of excess stock, and sanctions for enforcement of measures specified in the plan. To avoid conflict there needs to be support and advice for the better management of all forms of land-use.

- The core of the land management plan would consist of a grazing block rotation system, perhaps along the lines of the one previously introduced and implemented by the Northern Rangelands Project.

- The priority area of need identified by the survey would appear to be the construction of bunds to reduce soil erosion on Gacaan Libaax, around the village of Go'oo and, if possible, along the Tog Daldawan, to the south of Go'oo. The approach piloted by SNRMP elsewhere to support the development of land-use and natural resource plans represents the best option for addressing soil erosion and other priority issues. Other agencies should then be approached for support.

ANNEX 1: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archer, G. F. and Godman, E. (1937). The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden. Volumes 1 & 2.

London and Edinburgh: Gurney and Jackson. (1962). Volumes 3 & 4. Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd. Bird distribution in British Somaliland up to 1922. Has interesting descriptions of various habitats under the accounts of the different bird species.

Ash, J. S. and Miskell, J. E. (1998). Birds of Somalia. Sussex, U. K.: Pica Press. Gives distribution maps for all bird species recorded in Somalia, together with a paragraph on status for each. Has a long introductory chapter on vegetation and soils by C. F. Hemming.

Bally, P. R. O. and Melville, R. (1973). Report on the vegetation of the Somali Democratic Republic with recommendations for its restoration and conservation. Unpublished report, referenced in Oldfield (1997). Recommends that Gacaan Lebaax be made a national park, because of its unique vegetation.

Barrow, E. (1998). Somaliland field trip report. Nairobi: IUCN. Funaioli, U. and Simonetta, A. M. (1966). The mammalian fauna of the Somali Republic: status and conservation problems. Monitore Zoologico Italiano, Supplemento : 285-347. Gives current distribution maps for all larger mammals in Somalia, and comments on the status of each species. Also lists to Somali names of the mammals covered.

Gilliland, H. B. (1946). The vegetation of eastern British Somaliland. Journal of Ecology 40:91-124. Covers the area to the east of 46E longitude, which is east of Gacaan Libaax, but the comments on the climate and the juniper forests at Daloh and on Mt. Surud are very relevant.

Glover, P. E. (1947). A provisional check-list of British and Italian Somaliland trees, shrubs and herbs. London: Crown Agents. A good source of Somali plant names.

Glover, P. E. (1951). The root systems of some British Somaliland Plants - IV. East African Agricultural Journal 17: 38-50. Comments on the shallow root system of Juniperus procera on Gacaan Libaax.

Hemming, C. F. (1966). The vegetation of the northern region of the Somali Republic. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 177: 173-250. Covers the vegetation of northern Somalia, including Gacaan Libaax. Has an important appendix on the reminiscences of an old man, Ahmed Naleya, who lived all his life in the Gacaan Libaax area and was interviewed by P. E. Glover in 1947. Tells how the flora and fauna of Gacaan Libaax changed during his lifetime and that of his father.

Kuchar, P. (1988). The plants of Somalia: an overview and checklist. 2nd revision, April 1988. Central Rangelands Development Project Report No. 16. Mogadishu: Louis Berger Int. Gives Somali plant names for many species, and distribution by region.

Macfadyen, W. A. (1950). Soil and vegetation in British Somaliland. Nature 165: 121. Includes evidence to support the hypothesis that N. W. had much higher rainfall during the Pleistocene.

Oldfield, S. (1997). Status and conservation action plan. Cactus and succulent plants. Compiled by Sara Oldfield. IUCN/SSC Cactus and Succulent Specialiat Group. Includes Gacaan Libaax as a priority site for succulent conservation because of the presence there of Aloe jucunda and A. hildebrandtii, as well as Euphorbia abyssinica, Kalanchoe spp, and Echidnopsis spp.

Parkinson, J. (1932). Climatic changes in British Somaliland. Nature 129: 651. Gives evidence of heavy rainfall in N. W. Somalia during the Pleistocene.

Reynolds, G. W. (1966). The Aloes of Tropical Africa and Madagascar. Swaziland: Mbabane: The Trustees, The Aloe Book Fund. Lists three species of the succulent genus Aloe which are known from Gacaan Libaax.

These include Aloe jucunda Reynolds, which is endemic to Gacaan Libaax, A. hildebrandtii Baker, which is known from only three localities including Gacaan Libaax, where it is abundant, and A. rigens Reynolds and Bally, which is known from four other localities in N.W. Somalia.

Thulin, M. (ed.) (1993, 1995). Flora of Somalia. Volumes 1 & 4. Kew: The Royal Botanic Gardens. Gives Somali names for many of the plants included.

ANNEX 2: SOMALI AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS ON GACAAN LIBAAX TREES AND SHRUBS Somali Name -----------Scientific Name

Ad Adag---------------Ficus sp.
Berde-----------------Ficus sp
Dayib-----------------Juniperus procera
Dosoq-----------------Buxus hildebrandtii
Maayeer---------------Euclea schimperi
Mooli-----------------Draceana ombet
Salemac---------------Cadia purpurea
Shooy-----------------Sideroxylon buxifolium
Sogsog----------------Acacia etbaca
Wabay-----------------Acokanthera schimperi
Weger-----------------Olea africana
Xasaadin--------------Euphorbia grandis
Xayramad--------------Dodonea viscosa

GRASSES1

Somali Name-----------Scientific Name

Dhareemo--------------Chrysopogon plumulosus
Dixii-----------------Eragrostris papposa/Sporobolus ioclados
Doomaar---------------Pennisetum villosum/Coelachyrum poiflorum/ Cynodon dactylon/Digitaria abyssinica
Gudoomaad ------------Cenchrus somalensis
Caws Guduud-----------Heteropogon contortus
Haldaf----------------Bothriochloa insculpta/Cymbpogon commutatus/Hyparrhema
Caws Cad--------------Enteropogon rupestris
Garagaro--------------Eleusine floccifolia/Sporobolus brockmanii
Baldhoole-------------Chloris mensenis
Daba Shabeelle--------Themeda triandra
Rabad Gudhiye---------Tricholaena teneriffas
Caraab Jeeb-----------Cymbopogon commutatus/Pennisetum setaceum
Seydhay---------------Sporobolus brockmanii/Coelachyrum poiflorum
Xarfo-----------------Aristida adscensionis/Eragrostris papposa/Tragus berteroianus

Footnote 1: Grasses are listed in order of local preference as fodder species, although all are said to be useful for this purpose. It must be noted that the Somali names provided by local informants for the grass species found on Gacaan Libaax are often used for more than one type of grass,depending on area, subclan, and the knowledge of the informant. The scientific names given are the ones which appear to be most likely, based on region, altitude, soil and vegetation type, but caution must be exercised when using these names.

PLANTS NOW SAID TO BE EXTINCT ON GACAAN LIBAAX
Somali Name--------------------Scientific Name
Cilaan-------------------------Lawsonia inermis (?)
Dhebii Qoodaar-----------------Not found
Buqays-------------------------Not found
Toon---------------------------Andropogon kelleri
ANNEX3: SOMALI AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF LARGER MAMMALS OF THE GACAAN LIBAAX AREA
Somali Name-------Latin Binomial-----------------Likely Status

Dheero------------Gazella spekei-----------------Uncommon
Cawl--------------Gazella soemmeringi -----------Extinct
Bayra-------------Dorcatragus megalotis----------Rare
Calakuud----------Oreotragus oreotragus----------Uncommon
Godir-------------Tragelaphus strepsiceros--------Uncommom
Sig---------------Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei---Extinct
Beyciid-----------Oryx gazella--------------------Rare (extinct?)
Dofar-------------Phacochoerus aethiopicus--------Common
Maroodi-----------Loxodonta africana -------------Extinct
Libaax------------Panthera leo -------------------Extinct (rare?)
Danyeer/Dayeer----Papio hamadryas-----------------Common

Note: In addition to the mammals listed above the Somali Ostrich Struthio (camelus) molybdophanes used to be found in the Gacaan Libaax area, but is now believed to be extinct there.