Forestry and Woodland Management in Somaliland

by Martin Herzog, Haldenweg 32, 4310 Rheinfelden
Tel/Fax: (061) 831 80 15 [email protected]
Website: http://www.brainworker.ch

CONTENTS

Part 1: Problems, Background, Development Potentials
Part 2: Problems
Part 3: Background: Environmental, social and political structures.
Part 4: A modular development programme

PART 1

Problems, Background, Development Potentials

Introduction and Summary of Recommendations

"Descriptions and photographs of the northern part of the Republic at the end of the 19th century, such as those of Major H.G.C. Swayne, record that the country was then park like with anbundant trees and grass. Herds of elephants could be seen roaming or resting in the shade of large trees and the wild ass was then so common and tame that shooting it was no sport. Today (1973, the auth.) the country between Berbera and Hargeisa to which these reports applied is one of the most degraded in the Republic. ... The last elephant died at Hargeisa in 1953 The rhinoceros, lion, greater and lesser Kudu and Swayne's Hartbeest are now extinct, or nearly so, in the region." [1])

This degradation is not only a problem in what concerns wildlife and biodiversity - it is first and above all a threat to the whole nation and its pastoral lifestyle. "The rangelands of Somalia constitute one of the most valuable natural resources of the country. They cover 80% of the land area and the livestock production based upon them provided, in 1978, 80% of the foreign trade earnings." [2])

This problem is understood by the government and many local and international NGOs. CARITAS Somalia took the decision to investigate the problem and have a look at potential solutions. The focus should have been on sustainable (= "commercial") plantations, e.g. fast growing species, alternative resources, methods and ways to plant trees, supporting local NGOs with advice. Potential cooperation with and relations to Ethiopia ("south-south transfer")should be taken into consideration. In addition there was a special mandate on the improvement of the carpentry section (VTC, Hargeisa).

This report will give some more details on above mentioned problems, present the natural and social factors of importance for activities in forestry and present the major topics with proposals for solutions.

The following part summarises the major points concerning each one of the modules. For each module here the main Problem, Recommendation and Comments are summarised:

1: (Fuel-)Wood and Charcoal

Wood is harvested without any restrictions on common lands, that means without any costs for reestablishment. Any plantation will produce wood that is more expensive than wood from common lands that has only to cover costs of harvest, processing (of charcoal), transport and marketing.

A rotation-system for wood harvest, replantation (nursery needed!) and charcoal production has to be developed with the participation of the ministry, the local charcoal associations, committees and elders. Charcoal production areas should be set up in blocks and delimited. Producers should be obliged to use the woodlands carefully, sustainably, that means, to take care for the natural regeneration or for replantations!

Nurseries:

The recommended fast growing species need water!!! That means, they compete with the crops on the farm, with the fodder on the range and with the people for the scarce water! Eucalypts, Prosopis and Parkinsonia, are not estimated at all by the farmers!

Proper testing of species has to be done, not only taking into account the ecological adaptability, but as well the socio-economic acceptability.

"Experimental nurseries" should be established doing species trials - as well as extension. This type of nurseries should be established close to water sources as dams, "balows" and wells (COOPI).

At any rate, forestry projects would have to look at things in a holistic manner, integrating production, distribution, plantation and protection of woodlands. The MLFR should play a coordinating and leading role in this field! especially the collection and import of seeds should be control by a seed-center.

To improve productivity of the nurseries a different approach should be used. Instead of assisting each one of those nurseries with their ridiculously low productivity, the result, the product, the seedlings should/might be contracted, but that again needs plantation projects.

The saving substitution of charcoal is very important and wanted! There are mainly three possibilities to do that:

- improve charcoal making / improve the kilns
- improve availability of kerosene stoves and fuel
- develop alternative fuels as coal and solar energy

The main steps or the improvement of stoves and ovens would be:

- compare models and their efficiency
- check the local market on available materials and skills for local production
- produce a set of models
- test the models in the households (cooking process, handling, quality of food, acceptance ...
- coordinate with other WID programmes
- start awareness raising and distribution campaign with the women in the markets.

2: Water, Runoff, Erosion: Watershed Management

For Somalia - RUNOFF - as a loss of water, and the erosion connected to it, is the main problem. Connected to it:

Fodder production is one of the highest priorities in Somaliland!

To approach those closely related problems, several activities, in addition to seedlings production and woodland protection, will be needed. Gullies and small rivers have to be managed to prevent:

a) the waste of water by runoff, and
b) the erosion caused by runoff.

Small dams (baleys and birkas) could produce the water needed for fodder production and tree plantation.

To avoid environmental degradation around water points, the construction of new water points, either surface or borehole, should strictly and only be done in association with grazing management plans for the areas.

The watershed management model COOPI is using at Boroma, is very developed, but as well quite expensive ($ 10,000/ha). As enormous areas have to be treated in Somaliland, some cheaper model will have to be developed.

3: Natural Forests Protection and Management

The traditional idea of drought reserves or the like would have to be expanded, the neglected drought and other reserves will have to be reestablished.

The most important one for forestry is the Golis range at Erigavo, the Daloo forest.

So far no recommendation can be given on the management or the possibility to reestablish the sawmill, as the area could not be visited. The following questions would have to be checked.

- The regeneration of Junipers and Boswellia.
- The productivity, increase rates.
- The shape and development potential of the sawmill at Erigavo.

The relevant literature to be consulted on the subject of Erigavo is:

1. Bergstrom, T [1975]: Trials with cuttings from francincense trees in Debbis.
2. " : 1975 Forest Resources of Gaanlibah
3. " : 1975 Forest Resources of Daloh
4. Flamwell, C [- ]: Improved methods of production at Erigavo sawmill.
5. Lawrie [1958]: Forests of the Somaliland Protectorate
6. Lessau, J. [1975]: Report on Al Mado Forest Reserve
7. " [1976]: Forestry Development in N. Somalia FAO SOM/72/012 Field Doc. No. 2

Moreover the "Somalia Ecological Society" might have some interesting information as well and should be contacted:

Mr John D. Leefe OBE. The Spinney, Clipsham Road, Stretton, Oakham, LEIC 15 7QS. And: Mr. A.S. Hassan, 31 Flyfield, Six Acres Estate, London N4 3PJ, England. FAX 0171 263 3658. As well as:
Dr Mats Thulin, working on the "Flora of Somalia", Uppsala University, Dept. of Syst. Botany, Villavagen 6, S-75236, Uppsala, Sweden.

Cooperation is advisable, in the management of the natural forests of Midagdu (Ethiopia) and of the Golis mountains in Somaliland. Unluckily neither of the two countries does have experience in the management of natural forests.

4: The development of an Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Culture:

COOPI, at Boroma, is already active in the fields of tree plantation on bounds and dams, live fencing and erosion control.

Wider activities in agro-forestry should be started in the agricultural expansion zones of Hargeisa-Boroma and Erigavo. Before - and better than - tackling large scale projects, grass, hay and silage production should first be tried on a small scale, on farms - together with water harvesting and storing. Water catchment and production have to be improved.

Along wadis a lot of the tall grasses are growing that might be replaced by bamboo, e.g. for roof construction.

Comments on the Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Culture:

Moreover, the efforts undertaken in Ethiopia have the aim to introduce soil stabilisation by terracing, contour bounds, plantations, watershed management and more. Those activities are not really part of traditional land use in Ethiopia. A cooperation with Yemeni farmers might be more advisable.

5: Extension:

So far there is no teaching material available for environmental awareness raising or education. For this kind of training the Ministry of planning should be leading, as different Ministries, as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, education and interior are involved.

Recommendations on extension:

1. - The strong tradition in oral knowledge-exchange will have to be taken into account for any training and extension activities.
2. - The possibility of working with and through the awqaf has to be tested. Extension materials and curricula should be done in cooperation with them.

The recommendations the National Range Agency made in 1980 are still valuable and should be followed:

a) initiating dialogue with the pastoral community whilst collecting sociological data in the area
b) continuing the dialogue by explaining the objectives of the range development plan
c) producing visual aids and educational material applicable to the range development plan and easily followed by the nomadic communities
d) conducting seminars and workshops in the regions specifically prepared for the conditions of those regions.
e) carrying out regular programmes with mobile cinemas using films, slides, film strips or even video tapes.
- To get a better idea on the real needs of women in Somaliland and on their influence on the environment, to enable us to make some reasonable project proposals, including the women, some PRA would be needed as a first approach. For this EC and Oxfam (Environmental Advisor Rosalind David) might - hopefully - cooperate.

6 Data:

Data and libraries are lacking. It is very difficult, for foreign experts as well as for locals, to get information. Any assistance in this field would not only help Somaliland, but very much the donor countries themselves when in search of data needed for development projects!

Final recommendations - The need for a systems approach

The major problem for projects in Somaliland will be the needed "systems orientation" as well as the time frame.

The National Range Agency put it clearly, already in 1980: "I should like to conclude this introduction by pointing out that range development is, of necessity, a long term exercise dealing with people's traditional ways and the growth of natural vegetation both of which may be extremely slow to change. ... Traditional ways are hard to change and to raise the educational standards takes generations."

This does not mean, that CARITAS or other involved agencies will have to run projects that cover the whole country and all the fields of activities mentioned in the report, and it does not mean, that projects have to commit themselves for 6-10 years - but it means that any project working in this field will have to be aware of the facts, that forest and range need long term commitments, that "punctual" approaches have little chance. Cooperation with other organisations and projects has to be established - because water, range, woodlands and the communities are strongly interlinked and "interactive". It all happens on the same two-dimensional space -and possibilities for "exclosures" are very limited, because they are themselves disruptive in what concerns the traditional, the nomadic, land-use. Forest, range and water can't be separated - and they are all common!

And it means that agencies have to assist with funds. Pure "advice" is not much valued, neither by government nor by the local NGOs: "We have the expertise, what we need are the funds."

Part 2

1 Problems

1.1 Charcoal

Charcoal production is a major problem. Most of the energy is derived from charcoal. Some 13 lorries (80 tons) are coming into Hargeisa each day. No wood is used for cooking - "charcoal is better". Only bakers and Bedouins use wood. The problem has been addressed in the FAO project-proposal of 1993 (p 63):"It is reported that about 92% of domestic energy requirements in Somalia are dependant upon wood and charcoal fuel source. The impact of the overcutting of desired species for the production of charcoal and harvest of fuelwood has become a very serious issue. While the demand for fuelwood and charcoal on a national basis does not exceed the overall forest increment, its distribution largely concentrated around urban areas, rural settlements, refugee camps, etc., has resulted in complete removal of forest cover from over extensive areas. The situation is aggravated by the use of energy material provided by a very specific number of species The end result is a sharp dwindling of supply sources, and spiraling cost."

Acacia bussei and A. nilotica are the preferred species. Preferably large diameters are cut or often set on fire even while standing. Charcoal production in pits and simple kilns is rather inefficient.

Charcoal producers should officially get a license. Often charcoal is produced by "outsiders", and the locals do not have the power (and guards) to protect the forest. Still, a positive aspect is that the charcoal producers are often organised in co-operatives.

1.2 Water points and Pasture

Somaliland is semi-arid. Water has a high priority. Especially during the dry season water supplies are the major problem for people as well as for livestock. On the other hand - where there is water - the vegetation is dwindling.

For this reason, normally, a permission of the forest and range department would be needed for the establishment of birkas. Nowadays, most often the permits are given by the water department alone, without any consultation of the range department. The birkas are not checked, the environmental situation is not being assessed, water is not managed. Wells in the tugs (water courses) seem not to be a problem, but the birkas (cisterns and tanks) are, as they are refilled by tankers.

1.3 Degradation / erosion / extension of farms / refugee camps

The National Range Agency indicated as major causes leading to range degradation:

-ever-increasing livestock: Its number is now estimated as some 25 millions for Somaliland.
-concentration of livestock in certain areas
-added climatic effects of prolonged periods of below average rainfall.

The stages of degradation that can be identified [identical with the stages observed in Yemen]

Stage 1. Palatable herbs are killed out and the grass is reduced in quantity.

Stage 2. Most of the grass is eaten off, shrubs are thinned out and much of the remaining grasses and herbs are found in the shelter of the bushes. Felling of trees for fuel and lopping for fodder contribute to the degradation. Trampling by sheep goats and cattle loosens the soil, which is blown away by the wind or washed away by storms.

Stage 3. Remaning grasses are killed off and in many areas unpalatable Aloes colonize the bare ground among scattered bushes.

Stage 4 The last bushes die of browsing and erosion and the Aloes die from trampling and erosion, leaving behind a bare stony desert. In 1980, when that report was written, there were small areas of stage one, large areas of stage 2, where regeneration is still possible if grazing is prohibited. Stage 3 was frequent in towns, while stage 4 was already widespread in the north of Somalia - in today's Somaliland.

This degradation is the main cause of erosion, an other major problem. The water problem has two "ends". On the one side there is the lack of water - on the other side there is an enhanced erosion due to increased runoff that again is due to soil compaction by trampling and the removal of vegetation.

A network of range and forest reserves has been set up in Somaliland during the colonial time. It was quite extensive and helped the range to recover from overuse. During the last years of civil unrest many of those reserves have been neglected and being destroyed. Even inside the reserves (e.g. the Qadow, Daloo ...) nowadays (illegal) charcoal production is going on. In the Qadow reserve farmland is rapidly expanding and many trees are cut for fencing, the forest is dwindling.

While the encroachment of agriculture onto the woodlands may be lamented, there is the fact, that the land can't be expanded. Only its use, its productivity can be "improved". The changing land-use, from range to agriculture, from an extensive to an intensive cultivation, embodies the chance for an improved soil protection. As there is much more work invested the land gets more valuable and so more "protectworthy". But it is a cultural innovation and will need some time and learning.

Some concentrated destruction happened around the refugee camps. Somalia and its neighbouring countries have an extended history of wars and civil unrest. Many camps sprouted as a result of the Ogaden war, others during the Ethiopian civil strive and later on during the secession of Somaliland. FAO (p 39) reports:

"There have been a number of subjective reports of a rapid depletion in tree cover in Somalia. Refugees were said to have resorted to charcoal burning as an income earning activity, and to have cut trees for fuel."

The result is, that nowadays there is an extensive list of sites of ex-refugee camps to be replanted:

-Boromo Region: Daray Marane / Derbihore
-Gabileh District: Ha Shaley / Idenka / Arapsio / Agabir / Wajaale
-Hargeisa: Damka (Halaya. visited) / Aw Barkadle (Sabarad) / Adhiadis / Las Dure
-Berbera: Batalale / Bihin / Biyoole

1.4 A "Weak" Government

To control those destructive processes seems impossible at the time, it would need a powerful and active organisation. But there is none. There is at present a common disregard for traditional as well as for legal rules.

What would be needed to re-establish some order?

Caritas, as probably other development agencies, might think about "transfer of knowledge and expertise", while for the Somali-Landers the case is quite clear and can be expressed by the following two topics:

-SL has been neglected by the south.
-People we have, we need resources.

UNESCO summarizes as base of the problems women and children encounter: "... the environment, with its fragile base for agriculture, subject to recurrent drought: they are linked to the economy, burdened by insufficiency of public revenues, crippling external dept, and donor dependency; finally - the most significant - they are linked to the general weakness of the social sector, which is underfinanced in physical infrastructure, and limited by a reduced institutional capacity for management, planning, or research, particularly across sectoral domains."

So we find all the three: Lack of structures and funds - what is no wonder, due to the recent development and the actual political situation, and lack of capacity in several fields, what again is often not a lack of capacity, but rather a different way of thinking originating from a different environmental (highly insecure), social ("pastoral democracy" [3]) and political (dictatorial communism) background.

Footnote: [1]) Bally/Melville. 1973: p. 2
Footnote: [2]) National Range Agency. 1980
Footnote: [3]) Lewis

2 Background: Environment, Social and Governmental Structures

2.1 The Natural Environment

2.1.1 Climate

Rainfall [1]: The highest rainfall zones of Somaliland are along the northern escarpment, the Golis range. And that is the area where the forest remnants are found.

The coastal, inland and especially the eastern areas are much drier.

An additional problem to the generally semiarid climate is the seasonality:

-jilal: dry season, december-january, northeastern winds
-qu: april-may, heavy rains, later in the south.
-xagaa: dry season.
-deyr: intermittent rains during october in the north - november Mogadishu, december in the south.

The most important rains fall during the qu, the driest, the longest and so, for men and livestock the most critical season is the jilal, during which people and livestock move to the southern range reserves, now in Ethiopia. It is this drought that lets the nomads move between coastal and inland areas, following the monsoon rains.

2.1.2 Flora, Woodlands, Forests; Zones and Tree Species.

The Somali Flora is, after Bally-Melville, related to the rest of Africa and Arabia, the eastern Mediterranean, the Canary Islands and Madagascar. The percentage (30%) of endemics is as high as for Socotra Island.

"Whilst more than 50% of the country is covered by wooded savanna composed of tree species (mainly Acacia) in varying densities, the true forest areas of Somalia constitute less than 4% of the land area and the actual exploitable timber in these forests is limited due mainly to the unreliable rainfall in most parts of the country. The forests of any reasonable magnitude are found either along the northern range of hills or to the south of the country." [2])

After UNESCO (the whole of) Somalia has 14% of woodlands, only one percent of that "mature" forests. Its xerophilos woodlands cover some 10-40 million ha. From southwest to north-east height and density is diminishing, while the floristic composition becomes richer. The rather dense, wooded bushland has an average height of 3.5m with scattered emergent trees up to 9m heigh. In the north-eastern regions with less than 200mm, there are some 17 million ha of semidesert grassland and shrubbland.

Area and volume estimates [3])

area       in km2 stock in m3/ha...total volume in million m3 

forest             512          110        5.7 
woodland           74,116       16115      3 
bushed woodland    19,400       2038,      2 
wooded bushland    170,300      25426      0
bushland           127,178      18222      7 
total tree cover   391,506.     807,9

Zones and species:

The major forest areas are, due to the rainfall and the accessibility, on the Golis Range. This is the only area receiving up to and over 20 inches of rainfall.

The main tree species (alphabetically) are:
- Acacia arabica ("Marah") 3-5000 ft
- Acacia bussei ("Galol") is probably the most important tree for the Somalis. From its roots, which extend to considerable distances just below the surface, are made the framework of movable houses. From its bark are woven camel mats (Kibit), water vessels and ropes. It is used in tanning is an excellent hardwood, and is employed as firewood and as well for charcoal.
The young green, and ripened red bean fruit (Dimbil) is used to some extent as fodder and the leaves and young branches are browsed by lifestock. It grows at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 ft. Acacia bussei is growing in the zone of 900- 1200m, with 2-300mm of rainfall. It is associated there with Boscia, Grewia, Cadaba, A. mellifera ...
- Acacia ethbaica ("Sugsug"), 4000-7000 ft, 12 to 20 inches of rainfall. Acacia ethbaica grows in the zone between 1250 and 1500m, receiving 350 - 550 mm. It is associated with Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba farinosa ... Due to charcoal production it is increasingly exploited between Hargeisa and Boroma.
- Acacia spirocarpa ("Qoda"). 1 subspecies. Grows 40 ft high. Around seasonal pools and intermittent river courses (Tugs).
- Albizzia anthelmintica ("Redap"). Abundant in the Haud.
- Balanites orbicularis ("Kulan"). Lowland, Golf of Aden. Fruit edible.
- Boswellia spp ("Mohor"), B. freereana ("Maidi"). Growing on cliffs of limestone.
- Buxus hildebrantii ("Dosok")
- Conocarpus lancifolius ("Damas"): This wood is excellent for Dow building and has been exported to Arabia before. It is used as well for charcoal.
- Cordiauxia edulis ("Ye'eb") 2000 ft. Eastern Ethiopia. A very useful nut (s. FAO projects.).
- Delonix elata ("Lebi") < 2500ft
- Hyphaena thebaica ("Au"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.
- Juniperus procera ("Daib"), growing up to 70 ft tall, is used for timber, some cut as "christmas trees" and burned "to frighten lions". In spite of the information that it is not used as charcoal because of its smell, nowadays sometimes it is mis-used for charcoal (export to Yemen and Saudi). Some parts in this area (Erigavo, NE) are being cleared for gardens and farms as in the NW, between Hargeisa and Boroma. It is the main species of the Northern Escarpment, in the zone above the A. ethbaica zone, higher than 1650m, receiving 5-600mm of rainfall. It associates with Buxus hildebrandtii, Dodonea viscosa, Terminalia brownii (the most valuable community/farm forestry tree in Yemen.), ...
- Phoenix reclinata ("Maido"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.
- Ziziphus mauritiana ("Gob"). Stream banks

Wagar Mountains above Sheikh in the Golis Range

The Wagar mountain forest is a dense shrubland with Buxus hildebrantii and Juniperus excelsa (as Jebel Lawz in Yemen, Jibouti, ...) The junipers seen reached maximum 35 to 40 cm in diameter and a height of 10m. In this part of the forest no regeneration could be seen. The nomads told us later on that the forest is much denser eastwards and that it regenerates naturally. An other forest of this type is nearer to Hargeisa near Gebileh, but it is mined. Boswellia can be found from the next hill eastwards on, down to Erigavo.

Golis, Daloo Forest, above Erigavo

This is the main area for Junipers, growing on 7000 ft altitude, reaching a height of 80 ft (.) and for the famous frankincense trees. Those seem still to be owned privately, as Plini. reported already for South Arabia. The theft or destruction of a tree is punished by 1 camel.

2.1.3 List of the Nature Reserves in Northern Somalia [4]):

- Ga'an: Berbera-Hargeisa. Juniperus, Libah,
- Surud: Erigawo. Juniperus
- Las Anod; 6-12 km south of Las Anod (towards Baran).
- Geldora Pass, Al Mado range. Las Kioran - Buran
- Molidera hill reserve, 60 km SW of Erigavo on the road to El Dab (Dracaena ombet)
- South Carin: 6-11 km, 60 km from Busaso
- Bihen Dulla reserve, Berbera
- Baran district, 18 km S of Las Anod, 12 km NE of Baran: Commiphora, Acacia
- Hadaftimo, Erigavo
- Sheikh pass, Waggar range

2.2 The Social Environment: Clans and Nomadism

2.2.1 History and Population Data

Somalia, and with it Somaliland, are creations of the colonial powers. British Somaliland received its independence on June 26, 1960 and merged with the Trust Territory to form the independent Republic of Somalia on July 1, 1960. The new government had to reconcile two administrations having different political, legal and fiscal systems, and it failed.

The country (176,000 km2) is divided into 5 regions: Awdal (Boroma), Waqooyi Galbeed (Hargeisa), Togdeer (Burao), Sool (Las Anod) and Sanag (Erigavo).

The population of Somaliland is estimated as 1.8 to 3.1 million. The capital Hargeisa had some 350,000 inhabitants before the war, some 150,000 after 1991. The population grows at a rate of 3%. The age at marriage for women is in the average 18-19 years in rural, 21 in urban areas, for men 25 - 30. The fertility rate is 8.2 within the nomadic population, 6.3 for the rural areas. Infant mortality is 152/1000. The medical services are anyhow precarious, there is only 1 doctor available for 30000 patients. The literacy rate in 1987 was 19% (.) for males and 6% for females.

The family law of 1975, on the legal side, guaranteed basic equality between women and men, granted women the right to hold political office, equal right to inheritance, and legal land right with access to credit and training. The new laws are under process, at the time being the constitution is still under discussion.

In 1986 44% of the population were nomadic, 31% settled rural, 24% settled urban. The 44% nomads generate 80% of the foreign currency revenues, through livestock export. And this in spite of the very poor lifestyle of the nomads. A sheep values some 15$, a fat cow 100 $. Livestock, bananas, hides and skins, incense and myrrh - produce over twice as much income as is expended on agricultural imports. Still, the total imports exceed exports by about four to one.

2.2.2 Nomads and the "Local Leadership Style"

There is a recent tendency towards "semi-permanent" settlements around berkeds south and west of Hargeisa. The semi-nomadic population has a farm where some cows and the milk-lambs are kept - while the herds are moving during the dry season towards the Houd, the drought reserves in Ethiopia.

Those villages are generally self-sufficient - and largely self-ruled. Some "authority", based on respect and the "power of persuasion" - but not authority of command - is vested in the elders. "Social organisation among nomadic men is strikingly egalitarian and democratic. Leaders are chosen for their intelligence, management skills, and their command of poetry and oratory. The nomadic lifestyle is characterised by great individuality and independence; for, in this difficult environment people must respond first to the commands of nature and second to those of men or women." [5])

External assistance and development has to take into account those traditions and to proceed through those existing structures that are still very much related to the nomadic ones: "Overall, the social organisation of these northern cultivating families remains similar to that of purely nomadic pastoral groups. Among riverine populations, village settlements have developed a more complex political and social organisation, and tends to a territorial arrangement under community leaders or headmen. Along with government representatives, the headmen undertake responsibility for maintaining justice, order, and political administration. A more hierarchical order with clearer class distinctions typifies these groups." [6]) The nomads do not respect a law - except their own. Due to the risky and unreliable environment, large parts of the population will always have to rely on "low input - low output systems". The Common wisdom on farming is:

"It is said that one cannot pierce the sky to get rain for one's garden, nor can one drive the farm as one drives animals to the place where rain is falling. Worst of all one cannot abandon one's farm even though barren, because one's efforts are invested in it." [7])

This nomadic lifestyle is not only a problem for the adminstration, but as well for education and extension. Those problems are common to the fields of human and animal health, agriculture and forestry. The nomads do not have schools and formal education- but they are very much interested in any knowledge - as much as the villages.

The nomadic lifestyle and traditions pose an other problem, he one of land ownership and free access to range. Somaliland is an enormous country - with a small, scattered population. The effects on the range is everywhere visible, so at different levels of impact. Any activity in this field has to cover large areas and has to deal with uncountable small settlements. Virtually no land is owned by the government or by the waqf, privates or cooperatives. All rangelands are considered common. The nomads won't accept any restrictions of their free movement. Exclosures are damaging for the range.

The traditional idea of drought reserves or the like would have to be expanded.

The demarcation of agricultural, range and forest areas (reserves) would be required. Land use planning and mapping was in fact a priority of the NRA and is still one for the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range (MLFR). But there are certain problems with the "feasibility". On one side the need is clearly understood from the point of view of planners and managers. The public opinion is even in favour of such measures: "The people would listen to that and respect it - it was done in such an orderly way in the past (British time)- at present the people are abusing." On the other side, application would have to be secured on the local level through and by villages. But in addition governmental assistance would need, as well as some heavy extension work with the nomads.

2.2.3 Clans

Projects have to rely on the most stable social group available in the area - and neither in Yemen nor in Somaliland that is the government.

As I.M.Lewis claims: "The two most stable elements in Somali society are: 1) the 'dia paying group': the contractually defined kinship group within clans or subclans, which acts as a unit in paying and receiving damages for injury and death; and 2) the clan: a grouping of several related 'dia paying groups'" [8])

Unluckily the clans are many. The six Somali clan-families are the Dir, Darod, Isaq, Hawiye, Digil and Rahanweyn (Digil-Mirifle).

The following map (from EC/UNDP) gives an impression of the complexity: Clan-settings in the northern part of the Horn of Africa:

2.3 Economy

Agriculture employs three quarters of the population and contributes two thirds to the GDP:

- nomadic pastoralism 44%
- crops 13%
- forestry 6%
- fisheries 2%

The estimates of UNESCO (p 154) do roughly confirm that:

- agriculture.....60% of GDP
- livestock.39
- crops ....12
- forestry and fishery....6

Land is classified by FAO (p 21) (for the whole of Somalia) as:

- 8 million ha (= 13%) available for cultivation

- 1 million ha (1.5%) actually cropped

- 28 million ha (50%) rangelands

- 8.6 million ha are forests and woodlands

In the northern areas (Somaliland), the 13% of arable surface are situated in a few areas only, receiving more than 500mm of rainfall, that means Hargeisa-Boroma and Erigavo.

From 1969 to 1991 Somalia was ruled by the "Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC)", led by the President Major General Mohammed Siad Barre. This body served until 1976 as the supreme legislation and executive body. The little economic activities have been disrupted by the Ogaden war 1977/78 and the reliance on foreign aid was definitely not improving the economic performance. Privates, companies and associations can lease land for certain time spans, up to 99 years. Land tenure under those historical and traditional (nomads, s. previous chapter) settings is a problem. Officially the state still claims ownership of range and forests. As long as the constitution is still under discussion and as Somaliland is anyhow not politically recognised, it does not make much sense to discuss the issue.

At any rate, it has been said about Somalia, that "the government is poor and (some) privates are rich". As I.M. Lewis [9]) expresses it: "Only the pastoral livestock industry managed to survive the destructive economic effects of the Siad Barre regime, which officially suppressed private enterprise, although thereby stimulating an extensive informal and black market economy. In the late 1980s, a structural adjustment programme was attempted but not properly implemented, leaving Somalis with little experience of successful economic policy. Once the state collapsed, the country was left with many small traders and producers lacking public services and regulation." "Monopolies were used to maximise personal gains, and resources were allocated on the basis of personal and clan ties." [10])

This is again a warning for development agencies [11]):

Do not expect any economy that follows 'our' market rules.

The fact that some 300,000 Somali workers abroad increased the GNP from 273 to 370$ is the base for an other problem Somalia has in common with Yemen: the extremely high labour costs.

2.3.1 Livestock Markets, Holding Grounds. -Human and Livestock [12]):
-humans 3.8 million [13])
-camels 5.3
-cattle 3.7
-sheep 9.4
-goats 15.3

Regional Estimates of Human and Livestock Population in 1000 [14])

Region Human pop....camels..cattle..sheep goats

NW 440...606....145... 2242...3076 Togdeer 268...320....44.... 917....907 Sanaag 45....205....74.... 1521...664 Total 853...1131...263....4680...4647 Somaliland in % of total Somalia..22.. 21..7..50..30

The last line shows, that the estimates are not quite reliable. Somaliland's surface is only 40% of Somalia. Probably the total livestock of Somaliland is underestimated with 11 million (Sool region is missing in this table.). More recent estimates are 20-25 million. It would be astonishing that Somaliland has only for sheep a proportionally higher quote than the rest of Somalia - while being the center of pastoralism.

The map from Aves/Bechtold (abb. 3, p. 38)shows that the major livestock producer and the dominant livestock exporter is Somaliland.

An other problem where no information is available is the shape of the grazing reserves in Ethiopia. They might be heavily overused or even largely destroyed.

Scoones reports (p 87) that "despite becoming a major exporter of live animals to Gulf countries during the 1960s and 1970s, Somalia was never able to establish a functional, cost-effective and well-managed set of export marketing facilities. Holding grounds were invariably poorly designed, constructed and maintained. Forage production was typically inadequate and water sources were not always reliable. Furthermore, livestock traders never accepted that they had to put their animals in holding grounds for quarantine. Some traders feared mixing their healthy stock with other traders' diseased stock; others preferred simply to graze and water their export herds on the open range. In addition, temporary holding facilities are usually required near ports. At Berbera in northern Somalia, the port, through which the largest numbers of export passed, the temporary veterinary holding facility was never large enough or well enough managed to accommodate trade herds, particularly during the pre-hadj period of maximum export volumes. A major logistical problem is moving herds from distant holding grounds to temporary holding facilities at ports." This led to substantial losses and to the need for reconditioning in Saudi.

Large livestock markets are at Tog Wajale and Alleybadey (north of Gebile). After the war the bulk of the animal trade moved to Hartisheikh. A major problem is the fodder, this area here is producing and exporting such. The export from Ethiopia is forbidden. For 12 tons of hay some 250-300'000 Ssh are paid. Before there were holding grounds at Darborough and Lafarroug. It really seems to be one of the most urgent problems to rehabilitate such fodder producing and holding grounds.

2.3.2 Agricultural Production

The main agricultural areas are in the north-western area of Hargeisa-Boroma. At Gedebile e.g. are the gardens and fruit orchards of Hargeisa, often belong to rich landlords (or land-ladies) living in the capital. The main products are fruits: Mango, Papaya, Guava, Oranges, Dates; and Vegetables: Carrots, Tomatoes, Onions.

This area has a high potential for agroforestry, but so far no activities in this field have been started.

An other farming model are the large army or ex-soldiers farms as e.g. Booc between Sheikh and Borao. This is a 200 ha farm with 22 people, mainly ex-soldiers (60 before), growing cattle, sheep and goats, sorghum, cowpeas, mugpeas, water-melons (that are exported to Jibouti and Aden), tomatoes and fodder crops. The animals with their guards are kept at the corners of the plot to guard the area from the intrusion of nomads.

There would be a chance for a cattle fattening project, but the major problem is fodder supplies (no molasses or the like as in the southern part of Somali or in Ethiopia.)

Fodder production is of a very high priority in Somaliland.

Fisheries is an other field with an extremely high potential for increased production. So far only some 10% of the sustainable harvest are caught. The fishstocks are still very healthy, there is only little pollution around the port of Berbera.

Per month some 4 tons are caught for local consumption. Every Monday 1 ton is sent to Abu Dabi and since shortly to Ethiopia and Jibouti. Almost no fish is available at Hargeisa.

Licenses are given to the Arabs (UAE) and Russians. The waters are controlled by gunboats.

2.3.3 Wood Imports and Charcoal Exports

The data available on wood import [15]):

Jan. 1996: Value: 4,211,798 somali shillings / 80 _ 77,647,475 $
Quantity [16]): 8392 pieces of timber.. 1440 "hard board

Feb. 1996: Value: 8,212,536 somali shillings / 80 = 102,656,70 $
Quantity: 7908 p of timber..... 553 p hard board

Mar. 1996: Value: 45,936,019 somali shillings / 400 = 114,840,03 $

Quantity: 25719 p hard wood... 2600 p hard board

The data are admittedly meagre. It looks that the total amount of foreign currency spent on (officially registered.) wood import is not much more than 1 million US$ per year. Some more might come by counterband.

Data on charcoal export are totally lacking as charcoal export is forbidden. No export seems to be done through the port of Berbera, but rather, from hearsay, through Maydh and Heis.

2.4 Governmental Structures

2.4.1 Governing Tribes: An optimisation between centralism and indvidualism [1])- the squaring of the circle.

Somalia, in spite of its past dictatorial leadership, has no tradition of centralised government and powerful leaders. The present governmental structures, as well as the division of the population into five parts (french-Jibuti, British-Somaliland, Ethiopian-Ogaden, Italian-Southern Somalia and Kenya), are mainly a result of the European colonialisation. Somali pastoralists are individualists, discussing common matters in a "general assembly" (shir) on an equal base. Decisions are taken on the base of consensus - not as majority decisions and not as decisions of an elite. Even the elders do not have any power of command. They have authority - if they are able to convince - but their main function is to make consensus possible. Any member of the community has to have the right to participate in the decision making process. For Somalia (inclusive Somaliland) this means that each clan has to participate in project development.

I.M. Lewis proposes a consensus, not a majority oriented political model for Somaliland's government. His approach is close to (and based on) the Swiss model. The central power should be kept small. Only the functions that really need to be centralised, where coherence, consistency and continuity are unalienable should be allotted to it. Those are:

- Law and order, peace

- "Common pastures, water supplies and fish stocks need to be protected from degradation, ..." [18])

- Even in the case of law, the need for centralisation is not absolute. Somalia has a longstanding experience with "Multiple Systems of Law" [19]): "The existence of multiple systems of law within a state does not complicate administration and implementation. Somalis, however, in common with people in many other African states, already have some considerable experience in multiple legal systems since customary law and Islamic law have co-existed alongside the received English and Italian law."

- Defence / external representation

- Infrastructure: roads, ports, airports ...

- Health

- Education / Research

- Public service management

- Currency / collection, management and disbursement of central revenue

The administration of Somaliland has to deal with a disperse population. For that it needs widely spread offices. On the rural level we have districts, subdistricts (beel) and even sub-sub-districts (tuulo), the smallest unit of governmental administration with a council. It covers in the average some 10 km2 and is the critical link to the government. In metropolitan areas the corresponding structures are the "laan" (or "beel"), the "waax" and the "tabella" - the smallest unit with 50 to 100 households.

The maximum of possible functions should be handled in a decentralised way. This approach is hampered by the assumption of international agencies and bilateral foreign donors that those services would have to originate from the center. The case of Somaliland, still politically not recognised, substantiates this fact. World Bank, IMF and several UN agencies have "political-administrative" difficulties to work there.

The contact between central ministries and the rural areas are the regional coordinators, making up the Regional Development Council. They are guided by policies and technical instructions from the respective ministry. In their day to day activities they depend on the governor.

Financing of such institutions is still precarious. Where NGOs fulfill such functions (mainly in the south) they operate on payment-for-service base.

2.4.2 Governmental Institutions Concerning the Environment

The environmental section at the Ministry of Agriculture (DG Eng. Ali Abdi Odawa), is only developing. There are 4-5 persons employed, but no specialists, no resources, no activities.

What is of quite some interest is the agricultural extension. More cooperation with livestock and forestry might be an advantage. At Gebile e.g. the agricultural extension service gives advice on soil stabilisation and watershed management.

The priorities for Mayor Muhammed Hashi Elmi of Hargeisa municipality are actually more "market oriented". A total of some 999 small shops should be established until the end of the year. The needed licenses and fees will help the town administration and can be more easily collected.

For road construction and repair the surveying equipment, maps and plans and the building material will be needed, as well as office equipment, aerial photos (under process in Kenia). For this reason, the lack of planning, activities in town-environment and town-forestry are a bit too early.

2 hospitals do exist, 1 for TB, 1 general. So far only primary schools and coranic pre-schools are functioning, no secondary schools or adult education.

In the field of energy, the responsibility for charcoal is with the Ministry of Range and Forests. Electrification might be left to private initiative. Hargeisa has surely a potential as "economic motor" for its hinterland [20]) - but the hinterland will have to take care for the sustainability of its resources. Nothing of the large ecological program of UNCHS has been executed so far, especially not for the villages around Hargeisa.

The mayor says that seedlings should be provided for shops and roadside plantations. Spaces will be spared for green areas in the land reform law. this might and should be done in cooperation with the two already existing nurseries. (s. 2.4.2.3)

2.4.2.1 Forestry

Forestry exists since 1952, when 1 forestry officer was appointed by the British. After the 1991 revolution all laws dating from the S. Barre time (1969-1991 have been abolished. Laws from before can be considered as valuable, as e.g. the "Law on Fauna, Hunting and Forest Conservation" (s. Appendix A). Management plans existed, but nothing is left. Some information might probably be found with Mr. John J. Lorri who was the director of natural reserves, now working as consultant in England and being a member of the Anglo-Somali Society.

The actual structure of the Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range looks as follows:

- Minister: Abdullahi Hassan, Vice Minister
- Director General: Muhammed Abdullahi Ali, who has the following motto at his office:

The guiding principles of the administrating agency should be:

- Go to the people
- live with them
- learn from them
- love them
- serve them
- plan with them
- start with what they know
- build on what they have.

The directorate is subdivided into 4 major departments and 9 subdepartments: Administration + personnel and stores / Animal Health + Production / Forestry + Range (Abdul Hakim) / Planning + Research. Totally there are 26 employees (+ the regional coordinators).

2.4.2.2 Priorities, Plans and Strategies

In 1980 the National Range Authority [NRA] formulated the following objectives for the 10 year plan [21]): "Range survey and monitoring: potential land use map / meteorological stations / water sources map / fodder supplies / establishment of fixed monitoring sites / assessment of forest areas with potential use/evaluation of indigenous plants / of different ecological zones (carrying capacity) / grazing systems / exotic species / rehabilitation - reseeding combined with water conservation / conservation of fodder / bush control methods / economy of range development

Training at the:

- national university of Somalia
- livestock and range school
- Burao range training school"

The present priorities, mainly of the MLFR, are here not ranked, as rankings differ from place to place, agency to agency, NGO to NGO and person to person. [An extensive list is to be found in Appendix A]:

- Rehabilitation of ex-refugee camps and surroundings: The situation has to be assessed, replantation should be done with natural species. The Eucalypts (e.g. at Gedebile) should be replaced by Tamarindus (fruits.), Acacia cataba and Ziziphus maurit.
- Windbreaks and shelterbelts (e.g. at Berbera) with Conocarpus and Balanites.
- Sand dune fixation.
- Species trials: locals, exotics amenity
- Amenity trees for the city and the villages
- Awareness raising / extension / especially at schools.

Appendix: Species - seeds, trials, preferences

- Pinus radiata and halepensis have been tried. Due to the lack of mycorrhyza they are very slow growing.

- Prosopis is already a pest (s. Djibouti) - might be harvested for charcoal. After Basha Atilahi Yassin, e.g., the only Prosopis of some use in SL is P. cineraria (s. South-Yemen). Seeds can be procured through ICRAF.

- In the coastal plains Conocarpus and Parkinsonia do quite well. Parkinsonia being quite agressive and for that not very much estimated.

- Ziziphus mauritanica, Schinus molle and Azadirachta indica are preferred to Eucalypts and Parkinsonia aculeata.

Appendix: NURSERIES:

At present the forestry department has very limited activities. Before it was running some 18 nurseries and 47 range reserves have been functioning. Since 1995 only the nurseries at Hargeisa, Boroma, Gebile and Berbera are functional.

The Hargeisa nursery is in a big park in the center of the town. Assisted by the World Food Programme it produces some 12,000 seedlings per year of Schinus, Parkinsonia, Papaya and Prosopis, using pots of 8 x 18 cm. 25 workers are receiving food ratios (- present have been two persons only). The seedlings are given for free.

During the heavy rains in may 1996 the nursery has been ruined and needs rehabilitation.

Some species trials could be run there:

A second nursery is private, belonging to the MP and environmentalist Dr. Musa Awale. It is situated in the garden of the state guest house - a beautiful place. The size is some 10 x 35 m. The pot-size used 15 x 24 cm. Seedlings are irrigated daily - about 15 % are dead. The estimated total number is 3200 seedlings. The gardener claims 3000 trees + 3000 "small plants". Mango, pomegrenade, shinus, mango and ornamentals are produced. The fruit trees need 2 to 3 years. There is no need for a shading net, as there are old trees.

Gebile: The directorate (regional representation of the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range) is running a small nursery (in a big park) behind the building. 20 people produce some 6-8000 seedlings/y: Schinus, Tamarindus, Ziziphus and Eucalyptus. Bags are bought at Jibouti.

A problem is the salty water, leading to the killing of many seedlings. A birka would be needed. The seedlings are used for plantations at the village (truly - a very green, tree liking village.).

The replantation of areas damaged (= cleared) during the war, by bulldozers, would be needed, as well as of areas cleared for charcoal production.

At Boroma the situation is less attractive. An old nursery, established by SORRA in 1993 has been abandoned - the 6 month contract being terminated (sustainability = contract duration. The seedlings are still there, the roots are growing through the bottom of the pots.

As well the very old British nursery has been abandoned. It has a dam, used or the experimental agricultural farm. There are old Eucalypts, Flame Trees, Schinus, Oleander ... It might be developed into a park, including a new nursery - under shade-trees.

At Agamsa exists a nursery, assisted by IRC, producing some 3000 seedlings/y with 10 persons: Eucalyptus, Tamarindus, Ziziphus maur. ("Gob"). The production of lemon and guava is planned, as well as the establishment of windshelters. This nursery was established after the forestry nursery at Gebile (WFP) - what indicates a certain "tribalisme" (lack of coo peration) between the different agencies.

At Daarburug Khadar Muh. Ali is running a private nursery, mainly for fruit trees (papaya, melon, pomegrenade). The whole town is planted with Schinus. 1986 some CARE assistance was given (seeds and pots). The nursery has been partly destroyed during the war.

At Lafaroug Ahmed Shamoa, the chairman, shows us the nursery under the tree shade. They are helped by the WFP - but would need pots. This nursery is producing Conocarpus ("Damas") seedlings for Berbera. They claim that there is a large market for those seedlings - that are distributed for free.

At Berbera the Ministry of Livestock and Range has an other nursery, some 10 x 20 m. The species grown here are: Ziziphus mauritanica, Parkinsonia, Ac. albida, Tamarindus indica, Conocarpus lancifolius and Grevillea. Some 2800 seedlings are here. The nursery is working since half a year and is assisted with 20 ffw ratios (ridiculous productivity.). There are no funds for the protection of the plants and there are no sites.

At Booc (between Sheikh and Bora'o) a birka has been built and a small nursery (7 x 7 m), where Tamarindus indica, Ziziphus mauritanica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordia somalensis & sinensis and Azadirachta indica are being produced. Hedges from sisal have been planted. The nursery should produce for Sheikh, Berbera and Bura'o. It was assisted by WFP - but lacks bags and fencing material for protection.

Footnotes:

[1]) map from Hunt report
[2]) National Range Authority. p 29: "6. Department of Forestry / 6.1 Background
[3]) FAO, table 1: growing stock (all Somalia), p 24:
[4]) Hunt Report on British Somalia: Appendix 1-4, p 17-25
[5]) UNICEF p 14:
[6]) ibid p 15:
[7]) ibid p 9:
[8]) EC/UNDP, p. XV:
[9]) EC/UNDP 1995, p XXI:
[10]) ibid p 29:
[11]) s. as well report on VTC, carpentry.
[12]) National Range Agency: p 3: chapter 1.2.2:
[13]) Three Year Dev. Plan 1979-1981
[14]) do, table 1, p 4:
[15]) Ministry of Finance, Customs department, Muhammed Duali, Dir. of Customs.
[16]) Not available as m3
[17]) based on I.M. Lewis, EC/UNDP
[18]) ibid. p. 31
[19]) ibid p 56:
[20]) Shaun McCarthy, HABITAT (UNHCS). priv. com.
[21]) National Range Agency. Dev. Plan 1980. p 17:
[22]) FAO 1993, p 96:

A modular development programme

3 Water, Range, Woodlands, Charcoal, Communities, Education, Extension among Nomads, Women:

A Modular, Participatory and Iterative Development Programme

The idea of Caritas is to find out how Caritas could assist Somaliland, without being drawn into long-term commitments with never-ending demands (s. up, comments on nurseries). The problem is now to get an idea how projects might be tackled, leaving the possibility and freedom to step back without doing too much harm and damage.

That means that Caritas is not going for large scale projects as e.g. the "Northern Range Development Project", where most the time and money was spent on establishing infrastructure. That means that Caritas does not want to start expensive, long term and large scale commitments (as e.g. the Batalala proposal - done by Caritas Egypt.) - that have no local backing and will break down totally, as soon as the donor decides to move out.

That means, while looking at the whole problem in a systems oriented approach, we have to look out for possibilities to "break up" the all-embracing approach into smaller, locally mmanageable bits, into modules that have to be interrelated. To guarantee local participation, the only base for sustainability, the projects have to be developed out of the locally perceived problems and needs, in a participatory way.

Due to the lack of information and of experience (especially of some positive experience.) on development projects in Somaliland, the approach will have to be carefully monitored, periodically evaluated and adapted - in an iterative way. [That to explain the lengthy title].

3.1 Water and/or Range

Water in Somaliland is one of the major problems - as in any semiarid country. Either there is not enough and there is drought - or there is too much and we are having floods (both in May 1996). The scarcity of water is already critical at Hargeisa. Water, some 2-4000m3 daily, is pumped from Gedebile - 240m below Hargeisa. The water table is lowering. The irrigation of the fruit orchards at Gedebile has been stopped by the mayor of Hargeisa. Water harvesting, the replenishment of the water reserves will be needed sooner or later, as the alternative station is at Dibarawine, near Boroma. But this one is 420 m below the level of Hargeisa and at a distance of 400km - what makes this task quite costly. There was again a Chinese proposal to establish small earth dams inside the tugs to recharge the aquifers and to prevent erosion with contour bounds.

Webuser-Beitrag von Thomas Diettrich, Namibia, 10.11.03: Somalia Anti-Desertification: Artificial Ground-Water recharge by means of Subsurface Dams.

While in the valley of the Golis range water can be found almost all the year round at shallow wells (5-12m), more to the south, especially to the south-east, the water table is much deeper. Traditional water sources are springs, wells, waros (natural ponds), balleys (artificial ponds), and berkeds (large cementlined tanks). With the introduction of modern technology, the field has expanded to include deep drilled wells with motorized pumps. The economic handling of those is still "problematic":

At Ged Belad (meaning "big tree" - no such can be found anymore.) a well has been established, some 180m deep. During the dry season it is overused, the pump is working 24 hours a day. There is no money available to make a larger tank, to buy a new generator or to replace the pump. The fees collected for the water are just sufficient to pay for diesel.

At Tog Wajale, on the border to Ethiopia, the water depth is only 70m, but for the 15000 people the 10 drums of water delivered per day by the pump are insufficient.

On the other hand, the more water points are available, the more range is overgrazed.

So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected to it, are the main problems.

But those problems are interconnected. The range has been and is being neglected. Overgrazing, trampling and soil compaction increase the runoff. Soil and water conservation projects have priority. There is a need of transfer of technology knowledge to the Somali pastoralists [s. module EXTENSION].

Without range no livestock, without livestock no Somaliland.

So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected only be done in association with grazing management plans for the areas.

[This is a major part of the Forest and Range Law. s. App. A)

In fact the Ministry of Forestry (the former "National Range Agency") has wide environmental protection powers. It would have to license and register all boreholes, wars, balleys and berkeds, particularly for livestock watering, in rural areas.

Would have ... Unluckily the law is not ratified and the institution not really functional. Moreover the "National Water Committee" is composed of the Ministry of Planning, of Agriculture, of Livestock, Forest and Range, of Health, of the Interior - and chaired by the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources. The latter one is at present distributing licenses without any checking of need and without an environmental impact assessment. For UNOPS-projects e.g. the use of its checklist (s. appendix) is compulsory. Effects of project activities on agriculture, soil, water and air, noise, aquatic and other habitats, endangered species have to be checked. The approach and results of Oxfam might be of some interest here as well.

3.1.1 Watershed Management Models for Somaliland

The care being taken for rangeland is minimal. The main - well, the only - principle applied so far are the range reserves, giving the range a rest-period, a chance to regenerate.

There is no tradition of active measures to prevent erosion, to improve the range or the wood production. Economically this is very understandable, as

a) the rangeland is common
b) range use and productivity is very marginal.

Efforts would not be profitable for a private person - but probably for a village whose motto should be: common care for common lands.).

If the needed care is given depends not only on ownership and economy, but as well on traditions and education.

Agriculture is the field where private efforts in soil stabilisation are profitable. First the measures, as contour-bounds or terraces, allow the production of crops. Second, dams and terraces could be used for agroforestry plantation with fodder grasses, shrubs or trees.

But only care-full agriculture can control erosion. Care-less agriculture and range-use are enhancing it, what the case of Ethiopia shows.

Terraces, as the other structures, need constant maintenance. If the economy of terrace farming is dwindling and terraces are neglected, the situation is worse than without terraces, as the case of Yemen shows.

Range-Woodland-Watershed-Management-Models

Dr. Awale proposes on the water sector to establish more rainwater catchments. At the time the cost of 200l water is 150 Somali Shillings.

With a pond of 25m x 25m x 2m two families could survive for 1 year with their animals. An average family with 7 members might keep some 50 sheep and goat + 5 cows. Such storage facilities should be established above the farmland and would allow to irrigate some crops and as well fodder crops.

Projects as the planned one at Abdal with 4 x 4 km seem too big and will cause problems due to the heavy restriction imposed on livestock movement of the nomads and even more so of the villages in the area.

Grass, hay and silage production should first be tried on a small scale, on farms - together with water harvesting and storing. Water catchment and production have to be improved.

Good grasses for fodder are:Alphalpha / Aristida spinosa ("Majeen") / Atriplex / Bermuda Grass (Cynodon), Cenchrus ciliaris / Chrysopogon ancheri ("Dareemo" / "Dixi") / Eragrostis, Sudan Grass (Dactylodon).

Mainly local species should be used... Many of such are threatened -but still growing under the protection of bushes and of Aloe.

Unluckily recommendations can't be based on trials and scientific results. Even from the "Northern Range Improvement Project" only recommendations on "what should be tried" are available, but no results: "Annex I: Among the many species of native plants, those that have to be studied and tried on site are:

Item.....................Application

shrubs and trees
Leptadenia pyrotechnica ..... sand dune stabilisation
Ochradenus baccatus .... "
Salvadora persica. forage, fuel
Dobera glabra.....fuel, forage
Acacia sp.." fence and feed
Balanites.. " "
Capparis decidua.. " fuel
Cadaba glandulosa.forage
Cadaba farinosa...forage
Maerua crassifolia. "
Combretum aculeatum forage
Crataeva adanoni... " fuel
Bauhinia rufescens "
Ptercoarpus lucens..... "
Grewia sp. " fuel
Ziziphus mauritania...." " fence

a) indigenous species (4):

Grasses: Conchrus ciliaris, Dichanthirium sp, Sprorobolus sp 30), Andropogon anche,

Cynodon dactylum, Panicum maximum, Panicum turgidum.

Salt bush: Atriplex sp, Salsola

Trees: Casuarina, Acacia cyanophylla, A. senegal, A. melifera, Opuntia (spineless), Grewia.

Exotics: Setana, Medicago

The Badlands, south-east of Sheikh, are a heavily eroded patch of red soil, where no vegetation is left except some Acacias (A. horrida). Eucalypts have been successfully planted on contours. Microdams and microcatchments have been stabilised with Sisal. Natural reseeding and revegetation is expected (what has indeed happened with similar experiments in Yemen).

Sisal is a very useful plant for the production of fibre for ropes, mats and baskets. The flower pods are heavily used for roofs and houses. Due to that, the seeds are sometimes difficult to find. Sisal from Tanzania and Sambia is said to be better.

3.2 Natural Forests and Reserves

3.2.1 The Natural Forests of Somaliland at Daloh and Erigavo

The geographical situation of those forests and the species growing there have been mentioned in chapter 2.1.2.

The area is quite important on a national level, as it is the largest area of natural forests, it had a sawmill and was once able to supply wood to Mogadishu. It is important on the local level, as the forest might create jobs in the forest management and protection, as well as in wood harvesting and processing.

There is quite some interest of the local NGOs in its development (s. Appendix B):

ARDO, Forestry & Rural Development Organisation wants to develop Frankincense nurseries.

SOMTRAG, Somali Transformation Group, proposes a reforestation project at Erigavo, including a nursery, the rehabilitation of the sawmill and the improvement of charcoal kilns and stoves.

In spite of claims that the area is save, precisely during the days when the consultant wanted to fly to Erigavo, the representative of GTZ has been captured and taken hostage. So, unluckily, no first-hand data on the subject of natural forest management, on the question of natural regeneration, increase rate, sustainable productivity, transport needs and the shape of the saw-mill can be quoted here. But it seems that some work has been done beforehand. The relevant literature on the subject of Erigavo is:

Bergstrom, T [1975]: Trials with cuttings from francincense trees in Debbis. " : 1975 Forest Resources of Daloh

Flamwell, C : Improved methods of production at Erigavo sawmill.

Lawrie [1958]: Forests of the Somaliland Protectorate

Lessau, J. [1975]: Report on Al Mado Forest Reserve
" [1976]: Forestry Development in N. Somalia FAO SOM/72/012 Field Doc. No. 2

Moreover the "Somalia Ecological Society" might have some interesting information as well and should be contacted:

Mr John D. Leefe OBE. The Spinney, Clipsham Road, Stretton, Oakham, LEIC 15 7QS. And: - Mr. A.S. Hassan, 31 Flyfield, Six Acres Estate, London N4 3PJ, England. FAX 0171 263 3658. As well as:

Dr Mats Thulin, working on the "Flora of Somalia., Uppsala University, Dept. of Syst. Botany, Villavagen 6, S-75236, Uppsala, Sweden.

Daloh forest, on the northern escarpment, is quite close to Erigavo (9 km). The forest of some (6 x 40=) 240 km-2 has been protected (gazetted) by the British. As it is the area with the highest mountains (7927 ft) it can be expected that the rainfall is quite high. There is a tourist lodge, but its actual shape is unknown.

The ministry does not have any experience and data on the management of natural forests and the productivity of such. Management of natural forests is new for all the neighbouring countries (Yemen, Ethiopia and Somalia) and needs a lot of fundamental work.

At Erigavo some 10,000 people live, in the whole district maximum 50,000 (what is a very "guessy" estimate). There is a primary school, the secondary school would need a roof. In the surrounding villages there are no schools.

Most people here are herdsmen. Some farming has started and a few fruit trees have been planted. Some people are livestock traders and import food, clothes, biscuits from Yemen.

The sawmill is inside Erigavo, but has been destroyed during the war. (Gregory Fidel from CARITAS Somalia is sure that the sawmill at Erigavo was already destroyed in 1964 when he assisted in the construction of the runway.)

Before the logs were transported to the sawmill by truck. Nowadays there is no production of wood, but logs are turned into charcoal and illegally (against the orders of the elders as well) sold to Arabia. Some areas have been destroyed by fire. In the whole area there is at present only one (.) carpenter active.

The natural regeneration seems to be good - but there are different opinions - and still there are several proposals on Frankincense and Juniper nurseries claiming a lack of natural regeneration.

The regeneration of Boswellia seems to be a problem, only vegetative propagation is possible. Those trees are owned privately, highly estimated and well protected. It has to be checked if there is a real demand for seedlings.

Some Cypress trees have been imported by the British. If records of species trials are available has to be checked in Britain.

If either productivity and regeneration, or the amount of deadwood (used before) do allow sustainable harvest, the sawmill should be repaired to supply Somaliland (and the VTC) with wood. A nursery has been established in 1992. They would need some poliethen bags. At the time they use milk tins. Water is a problem as well. Mainly fruit trees are produced: grapes, peaches, mulberry ... Those seedlings need about 1.5 years in the nursery. The shade was a gift of ACTION AID.

Other NGOs and their activities: CARE (irrigation), COOPI (hospital), Vet.Aid., Health Unlimited (health posts), GTZ (agricultural development, fisheries, income generation)).

The local population is very mixed (well, somali mix). Erigavo is the meeting point of three larger and one smaller (Las Gorey) tribal faction (clan). Still, in 1993 a peace meeting has been held and since that they look to keep quiet and even inter-clan marriages occur.

The Musa Ismail are the "woodcutter tribe" (unluckily not the treeplanter's). As the forests are in the hands of the two Isaak clans, it would be prudent to establish a sawmill or any connected activity not in Erigavo itself but fully on the land of that tribe.

Normally the "distribution of favours" (projects) has to be done in a very sensitive way, consulting at any rate the elders. In case of arising troubles that are "not unfrequent" (COOPI has to evacuate every 3 to 6 month.) the way over land (10 hours to Berbera- Hargeisa) or sea (Hays/Mayt) would be safe. For wood transport anyhow the overland road has an other risky point at Bura'o, where troubles about camels are rather common.

3.2.2 Traditional management methods - the Reserve System

Two traditional management methods that are of some help for forest and range improvement are known, as: Drought Reserves: between the wells, at a good distance, areas are reserved for the dry season, that means they will not be used for 4 to 6 months.

- School Grazing Reserves: For the pupils that bring along a cow or camel for the milk.

Wells should not be spaced closer than 30 km apart, otherwise it will be difficult to have those reserves respected. The establishment and protection of reserves is arranged through the elders of the village and the village associations. The function and the importance of the elders and the local acceptance is not verbally expressed in the forestry law (s. Appendix A), but is fully recognised by the executive agency, the forest and range department.

Gedebile (what means the "sycomore tree" [Ficus sycomorus] is a forest reserve some 30 km north of Hargeisa. It got some WFP assistance. Now there are only 4 guards, unpaid. Before 1988 there were some 20. With the drought of 1996 the nomads moved in and cut down lots of branches and whole trees. Before that the fruits of the trees have been used by the village as fodder. The village would like to protect the forest - "but the nomads have guns".

The cutting of branches for fodder purposes is done in a careless way. Lopping and pollarding are not properly established methods.

As the Gedebile forest, many dry reserves do not exist (or are not respected) anymore. Some other reserved areas of the Hargeisa area are at Qadow (Gedbalad, Aleibadei) and Salaan Yare. Those are two larger ones. Smaller ones are Dhan and Ceel Bardaleh.

The protection of the reserves should be reestablished. Some forest guards do this job already in the second generation (Abdu Awad at Gedebile e.g). Those reserves provide the rangeland with a rest from grazing for a certain period. Generally the best time to rest is during the rainy season - when regeneration sprouts and when the dry reserves are closed for livestock.

Forest by-products are here of not so much use an in other countries. Honey e.g, whose production has started, is valued at some 40,000 somali shillings the kg (hearsay), in the market it was found for 7000 / kg.

Frankincense has precisely the same price per kg - that means it is economically not very promising and will most probably not be of much help in the protection of the forests.

3.3 Charcoal use, production, substitution and saving

Wood cutting for charcoal is especially a problem in the North-West. A survey, made in 1994 by OXFAM America, is presented at the workshop by Muh. Haji of SORRA. At Boroma area the types of stoves were checked at 800 households. The main type is from metal, but often 3 stones are used, especially for the use of firewood.

At the average 4 kg per day and household are used, what makes 17000 tons/y for the 12000 households, with costs of 84000 Somali Shillings. Additional 131 teashops (31 have been checked) use at an average 8kg per day, totally 310 tons per year. The bakeries (10) use 2 camel loads of logs per day, the load . 15-20 kg, 10-15,000 Ssh. The average transport distance is 34 km. Some charcoal is exported to Jibuti.

The total use at Boroma is some 18000 tons per year = 150000 trees. The distance at which to collect/find fuelwood is already some 3-5 km.

As an example for charcoal production the situation observed at Daweli, Gerevis is presented here. In this area (village would be an euphemism, its a few broken houses along the road), some 700 people live. The area has a radius of some 10 km (comp. chapter 2.4.1). For the production of charcoal that is locally only of secondary importance, a cooperative with 23 local members has been formed: LOLEIS.

For charcoal production the largest trees are burned at the bottom to ease felling. This procedure is probably being mistaken as a charcoal production method: the burning of standing trees. The logs are cut, stockpiled, covered with corrugated iron sheets, lit and later on covered with grass and mud. The burning process takes some 5 days, the cooling process again 5 days. There are surely ways to improve charcoal production by improved kilns and to save wood.

For the transport a lorry is rented from the city. 1 load equaling 6 tons, creates a net-income of 10,000 Somali Shillings. 3 lorries are filled per month (18 tons, = 30,000 ssh). On the retail market, sold in 20-25kg bags at 1500ssh, that lot (6 tons = 240 bags) will amount to 360,000 ssh. The major amount goes to the big merchants and the retailers.

No special selection is taken on species. Small branches are left, some of them are used for cooking in the village.

Fuelwood and charcoal is the business of the forestry department. They should monitor the tree use and the harvesting.

A rotational system for wood harvestt, replantation (nursery needed) and charcoal production has to be developed with the participation of the ministry and the charcoal associations. Registered are actually LOLEIS, IFTIN and ILEYS. Charcoal production areas should be set up in blocks and delimited. Producers should be obliged to use the woodlands carefully, sustainably, that means, to take care for the natural regeneration or for replantations. All this will need the acceptance and the commitment of the local elders. As pilot areas Baliegubedile and Damal, each some 15 to 25 km from Hargeisa, are proposed.

The price is not decisive, and it is not considered as too cheap by Somalis. Especially during the rainy season prices can raise from 1500 to 3600 Ssh a bag. So There should be a chance to reduce charcoal consumption by improving stoves.

Recommendations on the improvement of stoves and ovens:

The main recommendation on substitution of Moh. Sheikh Abdullahi is Kerosene, as there is no care for energy saving (cheap) and no acceptance for new stoves, especially the solar box (an experience that can be confirmed from trials made in Yemen). Dung is shameful to work with (says Awale). In Jibuti 99% of the population use kerosene, the average consumption is 22.5 l/month.

At the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources, Muhammed Hassan Abdullahi (DG) and Omar Sudan (Dir, geologist) claim that studies on oil and gas reserves are kept back by the international organisations that have done it. Large parts of the existing documents have been lost. The size of the lignite deposits east of Berbera is estimated as 4 billion tons. It would be important to develop it, as the destruction of woodlands has been estimated as some 600ha/y in 1992. There are no ongoing or promising projects. UNDP, EC and WB did not respond on project proposals.

There are several individuals (Ing. A-Rashid Derie Farah) and NGOs (MUSTAQBAL Voluntary Organisation, Togdher Region, Burao, Nuradin JJJ. Samatar) that are interested in the development of coal reserves at Berbera. But this kind of business, gas (at present from Jibouti, very expensive. Possibly from Ethiopia) or coal development, should really be done as business by a private organisation that can be motivated (ev. by a tender.) to invest. The use of gas, as well as of more developed solar energy (parabola, solar cells ...) needs hard currency.

3.4 Community-Participation / Funding

Community participation and cost-recovery are very critical subjects in Somaliland. The fact is clear: "Popular participation in development is an appealing and indeed necessary goal if development efforts are to be sustained." That there is a certain "lack" is felt by the Somalis themselves. It is expressed in the proverb: "Ceel na uma qodna, cidina uma maqna: The well is neglected and empty, and there is no one working on our behalf." Even Prof. Lewis, a longstanding expert on and friend of the Somalis indicates the problem of kickstarting development in Somalia: "... despite massive injections of foreign assistance which, particularly after the terrible 1975 drought, earned Somalia the reputation of being an aid grave-yard."

Nothing is known (well, not much has been studied, at least by Swiss group) on traditional levels of participation, as the project was started as emergency assistance with little development orientation. For the contact with the villages (elders) the project often relies on local NGOs as intermediaries. The following text can be taken as an example on approaches to be avoided (Scoones: "In Somalia pastoralists have a tradition of co-operation in the management of rangelands. Successful co-operation takes place where there are groups of users without wide differences in wealth or in economic objectives, where customary contract law (xeer) is well developed and where functioning customary kin and clan structures facilitate co-operation on a wide range of issues. Co-operation is undermined where the government claims management sovereignty over the rangelands, where individual rich herders or merchants introduce different management objectives or where donor-assisted projects undermine customary decision-making and enforcement processes. The lessons drawn for a more successful rangeland development strategy include: strengthening the force of customary xeer contracts by putting them in written form and using them as a basis for formal laws, a closer and more symbiotic relationship in pastoral areas between customary authorities and locally elected officials and the bureaucracy and the alignment of development plans for range and water with customary common property resource boundaries and management rules."

The National Range Agency (p 26) had the following approach to funding: "The Range Fund referred to in the Act is intended to assist the NRA to obtain funds for carrying out conservation, management and development of the range resources. The funds may be received from government, foreign grants or levies and taxes imposed in Somalia. The act provides for levies to be imposed upon a) the construction and use of water storage facilities, b) the sale of fodder c) the illegal use of grazing reserves and d) the registration of cooperative ranches."

Other examples are e.g. fees for school education, fees for water, fees for medicaments, drugs - as well veterinary (covering drugs only).

The idea of a revival of the self-help-schemes might be useful. (UNESCO report, p 94): "The various regional and district development programmes initiated at the local level are usually funded through self-help mechanisms. This concept is based on Law No. 39 ratified in 1972, and updated through decree MG/1/4/,1422/86 issued by the Ministry of Interior in May 1986. Self-help schemes must be proposed with a comprehensive plan of action and budget. Plans are considered by the district self-help committee. If approved, funds are collected on a voluntary basis from the community, and these are jointly managed by the self-help scheme committee and the permanent committee of the Local People's Assembly. This scheme is utilized to give financial support to SHWs and TBAs in the WHO-supported PHC project in the Lower Shabelle."

3.5 Formal and Non-Formal Education, Training and Extension.

Even with a literacy rate between 10 and 20 %, the Somalis, as any nomads are eager for news and knowledge. There is a Somali proverb: "One lives on food and news." Richard Burton the explorer, scientist, geographer, artist and linguist wrote in the nineteenth century of Somalia: "The country teems with poets, poetasters, poetics, poetaccios". One hundred years later, B.W. Andrzejewski and I.M. Lewis noted that "the Somali are a nation of bards".

This strong tradition in oral knowledge exchange will have to be taken into account for any training and extension activities.

The longing for information has been felt at several of the visited villages. Most of them would be happy for any advice (on improved charcoal making, ranch management and improvement ...). Some extension/education might be useful at refuge camps as well.

The emphasis on non-formal and "verbal" education has been expressed in the UNESCO-report (Chapter 3, Education):

"In Somalia "learning" is an activity which occurs in a variety of milieus, among them the home, the family, the mosque, the farm, the factory, and the school. Learning situations can be classified as informal ..., non formal (e.g. Koranic school), clubs) and formal (government supported school systems). Somali society continues to rely predominantly on oral communication as the medium of instruction. For this reason, informal and semi formal contexts play a significant role in providing education to the community. These channels cannot be overlooked, particularly if improvements in health, nutrition and family well-being are to be maintained."

Already that time (1988) priority has been given to primary education while the need for secondary and especially adult education has been seen as conntected: "However, he added, as the experiences of nations throughout the world have shown, no programme of education for children can succeed without concomitant support for the development of literacy in the adult community. To this end the Ministry of Education will also stress the importance of nonformal education and wherever there is a primary school, there too will be evening classes for adults. In addition, Family Life Centres will teach women home based activities to support the welfare of the home and family"."

It will be wise, to take the recommendation of Scoones and to go first for human capacity building, instead of capital investment.

The UNESCO report, quoting "Two studies on educational wastage in Middle Shabeelle (1985) and Waqooyi Galbeed and Awdal Regions (1986)" found five main fields of problems in education:

a) socio-ecological factors: drought, poverty, the production cycle clashes with the school cycle: during the peak agricultural season few children visit the school. They earn up to 100-200 Ssh per day, what in 1988 was equal to half a monthly wage of a teacher.
b) socio-cultural factors: parental lack of confidence in quality of school, preference for Koranic schools, female retention for traditional household reasons; its inadequate services cannot persuade parents to sacrifice the time children normally spend in occupational labour (s. up).
c) infrastuctural weakness: young, poorly paid teachers, poor school facilities, inaccessibility of schools. There is a crisis (already in 1988.) due to the government's inability to finance educational costs on a sustained basis due to the unavailability of fiscal resources. While a qualified, motivate, and well supported teacher is perhaps the single most important ingredient necessary for a sound educational process - teachers are 80% underqualified or undertrained. In the three northern regions there were 27 % qualified, 41 % national service, 32% Egyptians in 1988. 30% had a primary school background + 1 year training, 57 % two years training, 32 % of the teachers are female. The mean age is 20 years.
d) goal-oriented factors: The educational system is not believed strong enough to lead to employment or economic survival, that means, there is no guarantee of employment after the school. The same problem is mentioned in the report on the carpentry section of VTC: "The trainees of the VTC will have to engage in private activities, to establish their own workshops - there are no jobs. So they should in fact be trained as private entrepreneurs, taught in economics, maintenance and management as well as in the technical fields."
e) mobility of the population

3.6.1.1 The Situation in Formal education

At Hargeisa so far only primary and intermediate schools have been established. The first secondary schools (4 y) will open in august 1996 at Hargeisa, Gabileh and Boroma. In Somalia the formal educational system started (1988) with two years of kindergarten (optional), followed by a 4/4/4/4 structure for elementary, intermediate, secondary, and unversity respectively. Post-secondary courses have been offered by other technical ministries: Health (2 years' nursing), Livestock 9 2 years' veterinary science), Range and Forestry (2 years). The average class size was 26.8, national teacher/pupil ratio 1:19 (1:14 Sool, 1:33 Northwest).

Those days assistance is got from UNICEF, UNESCO and SCF. The government pays the salaries of 1425 teachers (some 10,000 Ssh per month). Some teachers do "voluntary work, as out of Gebileh and Boroma. (see chapter 3.6).

Recommendations :

- local support has to be encouraged

- textbooks have to be revised to reflect curriculae more responsive to the needs of the children and the community. [Precisely the same recommendation is the core of women's education (s. next chapter).
So far there is no teaching material available for environmental awareness raising or education. For this kind of training the Ministry of planning should be leading, as different Ministries, as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, education and interior are involved.
- method of improving the production and distribution of textbooks
- improve technical and vocational schools by
- revising and unifying curriculae of technical and vocational education
- upgrading teacher quality
- production and distribution of instructional materials;
- improving the quality and quantity of equipment.

3.5.3 Non Formal education

The Ministry of Awqaf (DG Muh. Ahmed Ali) exists since 2-3 years. It has established pre-school curriculae, including environment (trees and animals) and it cooperates with the Ministry of Education and emits radio programs.

After the UNESCO report couranic schools are the most stable form of local, non-formal education. For this type of schools "the devout Muslim population showed a marked preference for training boys and girls through this mode of instruction. ... parents are the main source of income for over 93 percent of these teachers, and payments may be made in the form of money, food and other services."

The students are mostly aged from 5 to 9 (72%), although some continue until the age of 14. Girls account for 27 percent of the total number enrolled. Teaching last for 4 years - 10 hours a day, and is based on "rote memorization" of the quran, fiqhi (man's social affairs), towhid (man's relation with god), hadith (the sayings of the prophet), arabic and mathematics. "Few students leave Koranic schools genuinely literate in Arabic or fully numerate."

So on one side there is a clear an outspoken preference for this type of school, and: "Lessons can be learned form the continuity of the Koranic school which shows that parents and communities will support an educational structure responsive to their felt needs. These community-based institutions hold some potential for reaching nomadic students, as teachers are generally selected from the community and are willing to travel with them."

But the limits are clear as well.

The following question might be taken as the programme to be followed, trying to establish environmental education: "The measure in which this time-honored practices, having a relatively fixed curriculum and organisation, can be opened to new subjects and methodologies is a question that deserves further exploration. ..."

3.5.4 Extension

The extension services are relatively strong in agriculture, but there are only limited activities in environment. Ever one of the 5 regions has an extension center, but not yet the districts. Trained and experienced professionals are (still) available, but no finances. Some extension is done through radio and television, weekly, on range and forests. The situation is serious, and that is explained to the population, 90% of which are living from livestock and range. The destruction of the range would be the destruction of the subsistence and of the nation.

But most of the villages have never been contacted by extensionists from NGOs or the government - while (s. introduction to the chapter) information and extension (and assistance.) would be welcome. The enormous area with scattered, small settlements makes extension difficult, especially what concerns transports. At Gebile e.g. 5 extensionists (trained agronomists) are working with 1 car that brings them each to a village in the morning and collects them in the afternoon. The main topics for extension are:

- soil conservation: contour bounds, prevention of gully and splash erosion by the plantation of trees ("galool", "sugsug"), some by natural regeneration or seeds collected on the spot.
- new farming techniques
- plant protection (insecticides are not locally available, they have to be bought at Hargeisa.
- production of "home made insecticides / biological protection

The National Range agency always gave a high priority to field-oriented extension: "Although it is essential to have a strong headquarters organisation the field workers are the key link between the policy, research and the pastoralists or farmers. A high standard of operation in the field is vital to the effectiveness of the range development plan."

Its approach was (quite close to the one used by the "Natural Forests Section" in Yemen.) as a valuable

Recommendation for Projects on Extension:

The foreign donor agency should take into account the recommendations of Scoones:

- Long time frames are needed for iterative planning with the involvement of pastoralists. Successful planning and intervention may take 15 years or more.

- Start small and build up, focusing on institutional capacity at a local level.

So far there is not even one agricultural and veterinary school open in Somaliland. Everything was in Mogadishu - but some potential teachers are available. There is some potential to involve NGOs into extension (s. app. B). Even on the education of extensionist proposals have been submitted: Ahmed Jama Sa'eed, Nolosan NGO, Bora'o: Rehabilitation of Wadaaamagoy Rural Development Institute (WRDI) for the training in range, livestock, forestry and charcoal. But before extension is started, assisting private organisations, the messages, ways and methods should be developed in strong cooperation with the MLFR. Monitoring and evaluation procedures have to be developed.

3.5.4.1 Extension Among Nomads

The problem to reach the disperse population is shared by other fields needing extension. The main areas being human and animal health. "Browsing" their experience we get a lot of valuable information for forestry extension. Planning for extension, forestry and environment should try to coordinate with those fields.

Nomads: "This group represents the greatest theoretical and practical challenge for access to vaccination service. In most nomadic families, however, part of all members are settled during the rains, when pasturage is abundant. Indeed, in the northwestern regions only 10 percent of the population is estimated to be exclusively nomadic, and a further 23 percent is only partially so, having a "base camp" from which treks are organised. ... Vaccination sessions would best be held during dry season, when watering points are few and mainly consist of chartered deep wells. Unfortunately, many of these are very isolated and difficult to reach by road. Success in the face of such constraints would require a motivated health team with the desire, organisational ability and initiative to make it work and the full cooperation of a community which believes in the benefits of the service being offered.

Communication is key to successful immunization programme among nomads. While a number of nomadic families have access to a radio, the most effective channels of communication - those which invite trust and belief - are informal and interpersonal."

The recommendation, to do extension at water points (and teashops and the like) has been largely and successfully used in Yemen as well.

For the training of the extensionists we will encounter the same problems as listed above for the teachers (point a) to e)). The educational background, the training of trainers, will be poor. "Courses will have to emphasise practical training, field work, and role playing in favour of normal lectures." There are still people available, trained and experienced, but due to the long period of professional inactivity during the civil war, they will need refresher courses (2 months, ev. WFP assisted. s. proposals of MLFR in App A.). Participants out of the strata of ex-soldiers should be selected carefully, taking into account their psychological fitness - and their origin (ideally from the place of work.). Many turned nuts ("trigger happy") during the war and might wreck havoc if sent to villages.

The economy and so the sustainability of such a service is a problem. But extension is a service of the government to the communities. A similar service had been created for health (COOPI's "mobile doctors"), animal health (NAHA: nomadic animal health auxiliaries), Vet Aid and UNHCR. Here the services could be charged and the income was used to procure the drugs.

Recommendations:

For rehabilitation, replantation, reseeding and soil stabilisation a mobile extension and rangeland rehabilitation brigade should be created.

In the same time creating jobs and saving the environment. Vet Aid is on mobile vets, forestry needs mobile rangers.

The idea of the mobile rangers is not new, it was handled in such a way. Field work was the dominant part (s. up). Work had to be certified by the elders signing the weekly reports.

The first thing to develop will be the extension message, then an action plan, a monitoring concept and evaluation criteria.

If range management literature in the Somali language has been prepared is doubtful. At any rate nothing could be found during the field work. There is some efforts needed in the creation of such material. Extension messages, strategies and material might be developed in cooperation with Caritas Jibouti and the awqaf.

A last valuable hint, given by Dr Awale concerns incentives. Incentives are important for the Somali society - but it does, opposite to expectations. - not need to be money. The issuing of diplomas and similar rewards/recognitions proofed very successful. It enhances competition between groups. A Somali saying is: "If I did something good for you say it, let the people know it."

That means that: Honour is (probably still) more important than money.

3.6 Women in environment

For this chapter again the main base is the UNESCO report on women and children in Somalia. In this field it is, due to the segregation of genders, impossible for males to get valuable information. So I was not able to do my own research. On the other side, what is being done by WID programmes is, unluckily, all very much top - down. Instead of doing first some basic research (PRA), of getting the local problems, priorities and ideas for solutions, ready-made projects are brought in. The present approaches are more based on "propaganda and training" than on enquiries, assessments and participation.

The women are trained in producing handicraft as waste paper baskets (90% analphabetic population.), batik (has a high standard in Kenya, none at all in Somaliland), table-linen (Somalis, as Arabs, eat on the floor) ... and more of the kind. Its the same products in Yemen and Kenya, all over the place. Rather useless and so, with a very limited potential for income generation. (UNESCO expressed the same critique.).

It has to be admitted, that the women enjoy the courses, it is "a change" for them.

A similar problem are the solar cookers. A heavy propaganda is being undertaken - I myself have taken part in it for a year in Yemen. But in Yemen we tried the thing, ourselves and with the people. The only thing that really gets cooked is tomatoes. Rice, the staple food, never gets really cooked, and especially it is impossible to produce dry rice. The opinion of the women's expert was: "So the people have to adapt themselves." She means the people have to adapt to the cookers - not the cookers to the people's taste. [Bullshit - no further comments.].

In those nomadic and agricultural families the division of labour is gender-related. Women have to take care for the children, their education, the household, fetching water and fuel, to work on the farm, sow, look after the livestock, making household utensils, weaving the portable nomadic house (aqal), they preserve food and may also sell milk, ghee (clarified butter), mats and ropes, charcoal, and wild fruits to supplement the family income.

Among urban women the "poor women often gain less benefit from the amenities of city life. They are disadvantaged in measure of access to health and educational services and are often forced to turn to petty trading and domestic work, which offers a precarious income." The income generated by women is important for many families: "26 percent of home-based income-earners were women, while in Waaberi District almost one-third of households depended upon women's earnings. The largest number of working women were in the age group 30-34 years, with many widowed or divorced."

The problems in women's education after 1980 are the same as for the schools: "lack of operational funds, no guarantee of post- educational employment, shortage of educational material - and a poorly focused curriculum. Furthermore, the centres did not cater for rural women and concentrated skills training on nondevelopmental activities (s. up).

Here, as for forestry extension, we can largely rely on local knowledge and on locally developped programmes. Development work in Somalia is definitely not as difficult and cumbersome as one might think, relying on hearsay. There are an awful lot of god ideas and experiences available.

The approach of the ministry of education might be taken as recommendation for further development: The MOE "established in 1984 the Women's Education Department (WED) to provide educational opportunities for women who had little or no chance to attend formal schools. The main aim was to offer practical training which would improve their daily lives. .. including raising the level of female literacy and prepare women for leadership roles; forming groups of women to stimulate rural development activities emphasizing women's participation; and transmitting relevant information to women involved in rural development. This function includes training, research, material development, and evaluation of development projects.

It is apparent that making female education more meaningful to life situations by including health, use of environmental resources, nutrition, and improve occupational skills would lead to greater support from the family and community for female education"

To get a better idea on the real needs of women in Somaliland and on their influence on the environment, to enable us to make some reasonable project proposals, including the women, some PRA would be needed as a first approach.

3.7 Research, Data, Documentation

To say that: "it is difficult to get data in Somaliland" would be almost euphemistic. Due to the different revolutions and unrest in Somalia lots of documents have been lost.

The major documentation center for Somaliland is now at UNDOS, Centenary House, Off Ring Road, Westlands, Nairobi. Tel. 254-2 441.

The whole relevant information should be collected and made available at a local databank.

Registration, monitoring and evaluation of NGOs should be started. At the time problems with the organisation of the government (plans and duties) are still prevalent.

A database on local specialists (local experts) would be a valuable source for development.

For all this, the Ministry of Planning should coordinate with the other interested ministries, the NGOs and the Environmental group.

Problems, Background, Development Potentials

Introduction and Summary of Recommendations

Descriptions and photographs of the northern part of the Republic at the end of the 19th century, such as those of Major H.G.C. Swayne, record that the country was then park like with anbundant trees and grass. Herds of elephants could be seen roaming or resting in the shade of large trees and the wild ass was then so common and tame that shooting it was no sport. Today :

(1973, the auth.) the country between Berbera and Hargeisa to which these reports applied is one of the most degraded in the Republic. ... The last elephant died at Hargeisa in 1953 The rhinoceros, lion, greater and lesser Kudu and Swayne's Hartbeest are now extinct, or nearly so, in the region." [1])

The following part summarises the major points concerning each one of the modules. For each module here the main Problem, Recommendation and Comments are summarised:

1: (Fuel-)Wood and Charcoal

A system for wood harvest, replantation (nursery needed.) and charcoal production has to be developed with the participation of the ministry, the local charcoal associations, committees and elders. Charcoal production areas should be set up in blocks and delimited. Producers should be obliged to use the woodlands carefully, sustainably, that means, to take care for the natural regeneration or for replantations.

Nurseries:

The recommended fast growing species need water. That means, they compete with the crops on the farm, with the fodder on the range and with the people for the scarce water. Eucalypts, Prosopis and Parkinsonia, are not estimated at all by the farmers.

Proper testing of species has to be done, not only taking into account the ecological adaptability, but as well the socio-economic acceptability.

"Experimental nurseries" should be established doing species trials - as well as extension. This type of nurseries should be established close to water sources as dams, "balows" and wells (COOPI).

At any rate, forestry projects would have to look at things in a holistic manner, integrating production, distribution, plantation and protection of woodlands. The MLFR should play a coordinating and leading role in this field. especially the collection and import of seeds should be control by a seed-center.

The saving substitution of charcoal is very important and wanted. There are mainly three possibilities to do that:

improve charcoal making / improve the kilns
improve availability of kerosene stoves and fuel
develop alternative fuels as coal and solar energy

The main steps or the improvement of stoves and ovens would be:

compare models and their efficiency
check the local market on available materials and skills for local production
produce a set of models
test the models in the households (cooking process, handling, quality of food, acceptance ...
coordinate with other WID programmes
start awareness raising and distribution campaign with the women in the markets.

2: Water, Runoff, Erosion: Watershed Management

RUNOFF - as a loss of water, and the erosion connected to it, is the main problem connected to it:

Fodder production is one of the highest priorities in Somaliland.

To approach th closely related problems, several activities, in addition to seedlings production and woodland protection, will be needed. Gullies and small rivers have to be managed to prevent:

a) the waste of water by runoff, and
b) the erosion caused by runoff.

Small dams birkas could produce the water needed for fodder production and tree plantation.

3: Natural Forests Protection and Management

The traditional idea of drought reserves or the like would have to be expanded, the neglected drought and other reserves will have to be reestablished.

The most important one for forestry is the Golis range at Erigavo, the Daloo forest.

So far no recommendation can be given on the management or the possibility to reestablish the sawmill, as the area could not be visited. The following questions would have to be checked

The regeneration of Junipers and Boswellia.
The productivity, increase rates.
The shape and development potential of the sawmill at Erigavo.

The relevant literature to be consulted on the subject of Erigavo is:

Bergstrom, T [1975]: Trials with cuttings from francincense trees in Debbis.
" : 1975 Forest Resources of Gaanlibah
" : 1975 Forest Resources of Daloh
Flamwell, C: Improved methods of production at Erigavo sawmill.
Lawrie [1958]: Forests of the Somaliland Protectorate
Lessau, J. [1975]: Report on Al Mado Forest Reserve
" [1976]: Forestry Development in N. Somalia FAO SOM/72/012 Field Doc. No. 2

Moreover the "Somalia Ecological Society" might have some interesting information as well and should be contacted:

Mr John D. Leefe OBE. The Spinney, Clipsham Road, Stretton, Oakham, LEIC 15 7QS. And: Mr. A.S. Hassan, 31 Flyfield, Six Acres Estate, London N4 3PJ, England. FAX 0171 263 3658.

As well as:

Dr Mats Thulin, working on the "Flora of Somalia., Uppsala University, Dept. of Syst. Botany, Villavagen 6, S-75236, Uppsala, Sweden.

Cooperation is advisable, is the management of the natural forests of Midagdu (Ethiopia) and of the Golis mountains in Somaliland. Unluckily neither of the two countries does have experience in the management of natural forests.

The development of an Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Culture:

COOPI, at Boroma, is already active in the fields of tree plantation on bounds and dams, live fencing and erosion control.

Wider activities in agro-forestry should be started in the agricultural expansion zones of Hargeisa-Boroma and Erigavo. Before - and better than - tackling large scale projects, grass, hay and silage production should first be tried on a small scale, on farms ‑ together with water harvesting and storing. Water catchment and production have to be improved.

Along wadis a lot of the tall grasses are growing that might be replaced by bamboo, e.g. for roof construction.

Comments on the Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Culture:

The potential south-south exchange between Ethiopia and Somaliland is limited, as Ethiopia has a long standing tradition in agriculture, while Somaliland is a country of pastoralism, where agriculture is only slowly developing. Moreover, the efforts undertaken in Ethiopia have the aim to introduce soil stabilisation by terracing, contour bounds, plantations, watershed management and more. Those activities are not really part of traditional land use in Ethiopia. A cooperation with Yemeni farmers might be more advisable.

5: Extension:

Recommendations on extension:

The strong tradition in oral knowledge-exchange will have to be taken into account for any training and extension activities.

The possibility of working with and through the awqaf has to be tested. Extension materials and curricula should be done in cooperation with them.

The recommendations the National Range Agency made in 1980 are still valuable and should be followed:

a) initiating dialogue with the pastoral community whilst collecting sociological data in the area

b) continuing the dialogue by explaining the objectives of the range development plan

c) producing visual aids and educational material applicable to the range development plan and easily followed by the nomadic communities

d) conducting seminars and workshops in the regions specifically prepared for the conditions of those regions.

d) carrying out regular programmes with mobile cinemas using films, slides, film strips or even video tapes.

Libraries are lacking. It is very difficult, for foreign experts as well as for locals, to get information. Any assistance in this field would not only help Somaliland, but very much the donor countries themselves when in search of data needed for development projects.

Final recommendations - The need for a systems approach

The major problem for projects in Somaliland will be the needed "systems orientation" as well as the time frame.

The National Range Agency put it clearly, already in 1980: "I should like to conclude this introduction by pointing out that range development is, of necessity, a long term exercise dealing with people's traditional ways and the growth of natural vegetation both of which may be extremely slow to change. ... Traditional ways are hard to change and to raise the educational standards takes generations."

This does not mean, that CARITAS or other involved agencies will have to run projects that cover the whole country and all the fields of activities mentioned in the report, and it does not mean, that projects have to commit themselves for 6-10 years - but it means that any project working in this field will have to be aware of the facts, that forest and range need long term commitments, that "punctual" approaches have little chance. Cooperation with other organisations and projects has to be established - because water, range, woodlands and the communities are strongly interlinked and "interactive". It all happens on the same two-dimensional space -and possibilities for "exclosures" are very limited, because they are themselves disruptive in what concerns the traditional, the nomadic, land-use. Forest, range and water can't be separated - and they are all common.

And it means that agencies have to assist with funds. Pure "advice" is not much valued, neither by government nor by the local NGOs: "We have the expertise, what we need are the funds."

PART 3

Forestry and Woodland Management in Somaliland. A short overview: Somaliland's Problems.

Background: Environmental, social and political structures.

A modular development programme

2 Background: Environment, Social and Governmental Structures

2.1 The Natural Environment

2.1.1 Climate

Rainfall [1])

The highest rainfall zones of Somaliland are along the northern escarpment, the Golis range. And that is the area where the forest remnants are found.

The coastal, inland and especially the eastern areas are much drier.

An additional problem to the generally semiarid climate is the seasonality:

jilal: dry season, december - january, northeastern winds
qu: april - may, heavy rains, later in the south.
xagaa: dry season.
deyr: intermittent rains during october in the north - november Mogadishu, december in the south.

2.1.2 Flora, Woodlands, Forests; Zones and Tree Species.

Area and volume estimates [3])

      area in km2  stock in m3/ha   total volume in million m3 
forest           512      110     5.7 
woodland         74,116   16     115.3 
bushed woodland  19,400   20     38,2 
wooded bushland  170,300  25     426,0 
bushland         127,178  18     222,7 
total tree cover 391,506  807,9

Zones and species:

The major forest areas are, due to the rainfall and the accessibility, on the Golis Range. This is the only area receiving up to and over 20 inches of rainfall.

The main tree species (alphabetically) are:

- Acacia arabica ("Marah") 3 - 5000 ft
- Acacia bussei ("Galol") is probably the most important tree for the Somalis. From its roots, which extend to considerable distances just below the surface, are made the framework of movable houses. From its bark are woven camel mats (Kibit), water vessels and ropes. It is used in tanning is an excellent hardwood, and is employed as firewood and as well for charcoal. The young green, and ripened red bean fruit (Dimbil) is used to some extent as fodder and the leaves and young branches are browsed by lifestock. It grows at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 ft. Acacia bussei is growing in the zone of 900 - 1200m, with 2 - 300mm of rainfall. It is associated there with Boscia, Grewia, Cadaba, A. mellifera ...
- Acacia ethbaica ("Sugsug"), 4000 - 7000 ft, 12 to 20 inches of rainfall. Acacia ethbaica grows in the zone between 1250 and 1500m, receiving 350 - 550 mm. It is associated with Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba farinosa ... Due to charcoal production it is increasingly exploited between Hargeisa and Boroma.
- Acacia spirocarpa ("Qoda"). 1 subspecies. Grows 40 ft high! Around seasonal pools and intermittent river courses (Tugs).
- Albizzia anthelmintica ("Redap"). Abundant in the Haud.
- Balanites orbicularis ("Kulan"). Lowland, Golf of Aden. Fruit edible.
- Boswellia spp ("Mohor"), B. freereana ("Maidi"). Growing on cliffs of limestone.
- Buxus hildebrantii ("Dosok") - Conocarpus lancifolius ("Damas"): This wood is excellent for Dow building and has been exported to Arabia before. It is used as well for charcoal.
- Cordiauxia edulis ("Ye'eb") 2000 ft. Eastern Ethiopia. A very useful nut (s. FAO projects!).
- Delonix elata ("Lebi") < 2500ft
- Hyphaena thebaica ("Au"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.
- Juniperus procera ("Daib"), growing up to 70 ft tall, is used for timber, some cut as "christmas trees" and burned "to frighten lions". In spite of the information that it is not used as charcoal because of its smell, nowadays sometimes it is mis-used for charcoal (export to Yemen and Saudi). Some parts in this area (Erigavo, NE) are being cleared for gardens and farms as in the NW, between Hargeisa and Boroma. It is the main species of the Northern Escarpment, in the zone above the A. ethbaica zone, higher than 1650m, receiving 5 - 600mm of rainfall. It associates with Buxus hildebrandtii, Dodonea viscosa, Terminalia brownii (the most valuable community/farm forestry tree in Yemen!), ...
- Phoenix reclinata ("Maido"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.
- Ziziphus mauritiana ("Gob"). Stream banks Wagar Mountains above Sheikh in the Golis Range

The Wagar mountain forest is a dense shrubland with Buxus hildebrantii and Juniperus excelsa (as Jebel Lawz in Yemen, Jibouti, ...) The junipers seen reached maximum 35 to 40 cm in diameter and a height of 10m. In this part of the forest no regeneration could be seen. The nomads told us later on that the forest is much denser eastwards and that it regenerates naturally. An other forest of this type is nearer to Hargeisa near Gebileh, but it is mined! Boswellia can be found from the next hill eastwards on, down to Erigawo.

Golis, Daloo Forest, above Erigavo

This is the main area for Junipers, growing on 7000 ft altitude, reaching a height of 80 ft (!) and for the famous frankincense trees. Those seem still to be owned privately, as Plini! reported already for South Arabia. The theft or destruction of a tree is punished by 1 camel! 2.1.3 List of the Nature Reserves in Northern Somalia [4]):

Wildlife has practically been destroyed by drought and carelessness. Activities would be urgent (wild ass ...) but difficult and in many cases too late (Elephant, Rino, Lion... / s. introduction). The protection of the following reserves would have to be included in a project concerning natural forests protection and management:
- Ga'an: Berbera - Hargeisa. Juniperus, Libah,
- Surud: Erigawo. Juniperus
- Las Anod; 6 - 12 km south of Las Anod (towards Baran).
- Geldora Pass, Al Mado range. Las Kioran - Buran
- Molidera hill reserve, 60 km SW of Erigavo on the road to El Dab (Dracaena ombet)
- South Carin: 6 - 11 km, 60 km from Busaso
- Bihen Dulla reserve, Berbera
- Baran district, 18 km S of Las Anod, 12 km NE of Baran: Commiphora, Acacia
- Hadaftimo, Erigavo
- Sheikh pass, Waggar range

2.2 The Social Environment: Clans and Nomadism

2.2.1 History and Population Data

The country (176,000 km2) is divided into 5 regions: Awdal (Boroma), Waqooyi Galbeed (Hargeisa), Togdeer (Burao), Sool (Las Anod) and Sanag (Erigavo).

The population of Somaliland is estimated as 1.8 to 3.1 million. The capital Hargeisa had some 350,000 inhabitants before the war, some 150,000 after 1991. The population grows at a rate of 3%. The age at marriage for women is in the average 18-19 years in rural, 21 in urban areas, for men 25 - 30. The fertility rate is 8.2 within the nomadic population, 6.3 for the rural areas. Infant mortality is 152/1000. The medical services are anyhow precarious, there is only 1 doctor available for 30000 patients! The literacy rate in 1987 was 19% (!) for males and 6% for females.

In 1986 44% of the population were nomadic, 31% settled rural, 24% settled urban. The 44% nomads generate 80% of the foreign currency revenues, through livestock export! And this in spite of the very poor lifestyle of the nomads. A sheep values some 15$, a fat cow 100 $! Livestock, bananas, hides and skins, incense and myrrh - produce over twice as much income as is expended on agricultural imports. Still, the total imports exceed exports by about four to one!

2.2.2 Nomads and the "Local Leadership Stile"

There is a recent tendency towards "semi - permanent" settlements around berkeds south and west of Hargeisa. The semi - nomadic population has a farm where some cows and the milk - lambs are kept - while the herds are moving during the dry season towards the Houd, the drought reserves in Ethiopia.

Those villages are generally self - sufficient - and largely self - ruled. Some "authority", based on respect and the "power of persuasion" - but not authority of command! - is vested in the elders. "Social organisation among nomadic men is strikingly egalitarian and democratic. Leaders are chosen for their intelligence, management skills, and their command of poetry and oratory. The nomadic lifestyle is characterised by great individuality and independence; for, in this difficult environment people must respond first to the commands of nature and second to those of men or women." [5])

This nomadic lifestyle is not only a problem for the adminstration, but as well for education and extension. Those problems are common to the fields of human and animal health, agriculture and forestry. The nomads do not have schools and formal education - but they are very much interested in any knowledge - as much as the villages.

The traditional idea of drought reserves or the like would have to be expanded.

The demarcation of agricultural, range and forest areas (reserves) would be required. Land use planning and mapping was in fact a priority of the NRA and is still one for the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range (MLFR). But there are certain problems with the "feasibility". On one side the need is clearly understood from the point of view of planners and managers. The public opinion is even in favour of such measures: "The people would listen to that and respect it - it was done in such an orderly way in the past (British time) - at present the people are abusing." On the other side, application would have to be secured on the local level through and by villages. But in addition governmental assistance would need, as well as some heavy extension work with the nomads.

2.2.3 Clans

The Somalis are, as the Yemeni tribesmen, very independent minded, "freedom worshipping" people. They do only aggregate into larger institutions (village, tribe, clan, nation ...) in case of need. Here again an important principle that is constantly breached by international agencies:
- Projects have to rely on the most stable social group available in the area - and neither in Yemen nor in Somaliland that is the government.

Unluckily the clans are many. The six Somali clan-families are the Dir, Darod, Isaq, Hawiye, Digil and Rahanweyn (Digil-Mirifle).

The following map (from EC/UNDP) gives an impression of the complexity: Clan-settings in the northern part of the Horn of Africa:

2.3 Economy

Agriculture employs three quarters of the population and contributes two thirds to the GDP:
- nomadic pastoralism 44%
- crops 13%
- forestry 6%
- fisheries 2%

The estimates of UNESCO (p 154) do roughly confirm that:
- agriculture 60 % of GDP
- livestock 39
- crops 12
- forestry and fishery 6

Land is classified by FAO (p 21) (for the whole of Somalia) as:

- 8 million ha (= 13%) available for cultivation
- 1 million ha (1.5%) actually cropped
- 28 million ha (50%) rangelands
- 8.6 million ha are forests and woodlands

In the northern areas (Somaliland), the 13% of arable surface are situated in a few areas only, receiving more than 500mm of rainfall, that means Hargeisa - Boroma and Erigavo.

This is again a warning for development agencies [11]): Do not expect any economy that follows 'our' market rules.

The fact that some 300,000 Somali workers abroad increased the GNP from 273 to 370$ is the base for an other problem Somalia has in common with Yemen: the extremely high labour costs.

2.3.1 Livestock Markets, Holding Grounds.

Human and Livestock [12]):
humans 3.8 million [13])
camels 5.3
cattle 3.7
sheep 9.4
goats 15.3

Regional Estimates of Human and Livestock Population in 1000 [14]):

Region    Human pop. camels cattle   sheep    goats 
NW-region  440        606    145       2242    3076 
Togdeer    268        320    44        917     907 
Sanaag     145        205    74        1521    664  
Sool           
Total      853        1131    263      4680    4647

The last line shows, that the estimates are not quite reliable. Somaliland's surface is only 40% of Somalia! Probably the total livestock of Somaliland is underestimated with 11 million (Sool region is missing in this table!). More recent estimates are 20-25 million. It would be astonishing that Somaliland has only for sheep a proportionally higher quote than the rest of Somalia - while being the center of pastoralism.

The map from Aves/Bechtold (abb. 3, p. 38)shows that the major livestock producer and the dominant livestock exporter is Somaliland.

An other problem where no information is available is the shape of the grazing reserves in Ethiopia. They might be heavily overused or even largely destroyed!.

Scoones reports (p 87) that "despite becoming a major exporter of live animals to Gulf countries during the 1960s and 1970s, Somalia was never able to establish a functional, cost - effective and well - managed set of export marketing facilities. Holding grounds were invariably poorly designed, constructed and maintained. Forage production was typically inadequate and water sources were not always reliable. Furthermore, livestock traders never accepted that they had to put their animals in holding grounds for quarantine. Some traders feared mixing their healthy stock with other traders' diseased stock; others preferred simply to graze and water their export herds on the open range. In addition, temporary holding facilities are usually required near ports. At Berbera in northern Somalia, the port, through which the largest numbers of export passed, the temporary veterinary holding facility was never large enough or well enough managed to accommodate trade herds, particularly during the pre - hadj period of maximum export volumes. A major logistical problem is moving herds from distant holding grounds to temporary holding facilities at ports." This led to substantial losses and to the need for reconditioning in Saudi.

Large livestock markets are at Tog Wajale and Alleybadey (north of Gebile). After the war the bulk of the animal trade moved to Hartisheikh. A major problem is the fodder, this area here is producing and exporting such. The export from Ethiopia is forbidden. For 12 tons of hay some 250 - 300'000 Ssh are payed. Before there were holding grounds at Darborough and Lafarroug. It really seems to be one of the most urgent problems to rehabilitate such fodder producing and holding grounds.

2.3.2 Agricultural Production

Somaliland is able to produce maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, cowpea, sunflower, peanut and all subtropical fruits, as oranges, mandarins, pomegrenade, guava, papaya and mango. An important cash crop is qat/chat (Catha edulis). The main agricultural areas are in the north-western area of Hargeisa-Boroma. At Gedebile e.g. are the gardens and fruit orchards of Hargeisa, often belong to rich landlords (or land-ladies) living in the capital. The main products are fruits: Mango, Papaya, Guava, Oranges, Dates; and Vegetables: Carrots, Tomatoes, Onions.

This area has a high potential for agroforestry, but so far no activities in this field have been started.

An other farming model are the large army or ex-soldiers farms as e.g. Booc between Sheikh and Borao. This is a 200 ha farm with 22 people, mainly ex - soldiers (60 before), growing cattle, sheep and goats, sorghum, cowpeas, mugpeas, water - melons (that are exported to Jibouti and Aden), tomatoes and fodder crops. The animals with their guards are kept at the corners of the plot to guard the area from the intrusion of nomads.

There would be a chance for a cattle fattening project, but the major problem is fodder supplies (no molasses or the like as in the southern part of Somali or in Ethiopia!)

Fodder production is of a very high priority in Somaliland!

Fisheries is an other field with an extremely high potential for increased production. So far only some 10% of the sustainable harvest are caught! The fishstocks are still very healthy, there is only little pollution around the port of Berbera.

Per month some 4 tons are caught for local consumption. Every Monday 1 ton is sent to Abu Dabi and since shortly to Ethiopia and Jibouti. Almost no fish is available at Hargeisa.

Licenses are given to the Arabs (UAE) and Russians. The waters are controlled by gunboats!

2.3.3 Wood Imports and Charcoal Exports

The data available on wood import [15]):

Jan. 1996:
Value: 4,211,798 somali shillings / 80 � 77,647,475 $
Quantity [16]): 8392 pieces of timber
- 1440 " hard board
Feb. 1996:
Value: 8,212,536 somali shillings / 80 = 102,656,70 $
Quantity:
- 7908 p of timber
- 553 p hard board
Mar. 1996:
Value: 45,936,019 somali shillings / 400 = 114,840,03 $
Quantity: 25719 p hard wood
- 2600 p hard board The data are admittedly meagre. It looks that the total amount of foreign currency spent on (officially registered!) wood import is not much more than 1 million US$ per year. Some more might come by counterband.

Data on charcoal export are totally lacking as charcoal export is forbidden. No export seems to be done through the port of Berbera, but rather, from hearsay, through Maydh and Heis.

2.4 Governmental Structures

2.4.1 Governing Tribes: An optimisation between centralism and indvidualism [1])- the squaring of the circle Somalia, in spite of its past dictatorial leadership, has no tradition of centralised government and powerful leaders. The present governmental structures, as well as the division of the population into five parts (french - Jibuti, British-Somaliland, Ethiopian-Ogaden, Italian-Southern Somalia and Kenya), are mainly a result of the European colonialisation. Somali pastoralists are individualists, discussing common matters in a "general assembly" (shir) on an equal base. Decisions are taken on the base of consensus - not as majority decisions and not as decisions of an elite. Even the elders do not have any power of command! They have authority - if they are able to convince - but their main function is to make consensus possible. Any member of the community has to have the right to participate in the decision making process. For Somalia (inclusive Somaliland) this means that each clan has to participate in project development!

- Law and order, peace
- "Common pastures, water supplies and fish stocks need to be protected from degradation, ..." [18])
- Even in the case of law, the need for centralisation is not absolute. Somalia has a longstanding experience with "Multiple Systems of Law" [19]): "The existence of multiple systems of law within a state does not complicate administration and implementation. Somalis, however, in common with people in many other African states, already have some considerable experience in multiple legal systems since customary law and Islamic law have co-existed alongside the received English and Italian law."
- Defence / external representation
- Infrastructure: roads, ports, airports ...
- Health
- Education / Research
- Public service management
- Currency / collection, management and disbursement of central revenue

The administration of Somaliland has to deal with a disperse population. For that it needs widely spread offices. On the rural level we have districts, subdistricts (beel) and even sub - sub - districts (tuulo), the smallest unit of governmental administration with a council. It covers in the average some 10 km2 and is the critical link to the government. In metropolitan areas the corresponding structures are the "laan" (or "beel"), the "waax" and the "tabella" - the smallest unit with 50 to 100 households.

Financing of such institutions is still precarious. Where NGOs fulfill such functions (mainly in the south) they operate on payment-for-service base.

2.4.2 Governmental Institutions Concerning the Environment

The environmental section at the Ministry of Agriculture (DG Eng. Alie Abdi Odawa), is only developing. There are 4- 5 persons employed, but no specialists, no resources, no activities.

2 hospitals do exist, 1 for TB, 1 general. So far only primary schools and coranic pre - schools are functioning, no secondary schools or adult education.

In the field of energy, the responsibility for charcoal is with the Ministry of Range and Forests. Electrification might be left to private initiative. Hargeisa has surely a potential as "economic motor" for its hinterland [20]) - but the hinterland will have to take care for the sustainability of its resources! Nothing of the large ecological program of UNCHS has been executed so far, especially not for the villages around Hargeisa.

2.4.2.1 Forestry

Forestry exists since 1952, when 1 forestry officer was appointed by the British. After the 1991 revolution all laws dating from the S. Barre time (1969 - 1991 have been abolished. Laws from before can be considered as valuable, as e.g. the "Law on Fauna, Hunting and Forest Conservation" (s. Appendix A). Management plans existed, but nothing is left. Some information might probably be found with Mr. John J. Lorri who was the director of natural reserves, now working as consultant in England and being a member of the Anglo - Somali Society.

The actual structure of the Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range looks as follows:
- Minister: Abdullahi Hassan
- Vice Minister - Director General: Muhammed Abdullahi Ali, who has the following motto at his office:

The guiding principles of the administrating agency should be:

- Go to the people
- live with them
-learn from them
-love them
-serve them
-plan with them
-start with what they know
-build on what they have.

The directorate is subdivided into 4 major departments and 9 subdepartmens: Administration + personnel and stores / Animal Health + Production / Forestry + Range (Abdul Hakim) / Planning + Research. Totally there are 26 employees (+ the regional coordinators).

2.4.2.2 Priorities, Plans and Strategies

- national university of Somalia
- livestock and range school
- Burao range training school"

- Nurseries
- Protection of natural forests (Golis, esp. Erigavo, Sheikh and Boroma).
- utilisation of timber
- Regeneration and plantations
- Range and watershed protection
- Rehabilitation of water points.
- Rehabilitation of ex - refugee camps and surroundings: The situation has to be assessed, replantation should be done with natural species. The Eucalypts (e.g. at Gedebile) should be replaced by Tamarindus (fruits!), Acacia cataba and Ziziphus maurit.
- Windbreaks and shelterbelts (e.g. at Berbera) with Conocarpus and Balanites.
- Sand dune fixation.
- Species trials: locals, exotics amenity
- Amenity trees for the city and the villages
- Awareness raising / extension / especially at schools.

Appendix: Species - seeds, trials, preferences

Eucalyptus is not liked, as it uses too much water and is too competitive. At La Faroug an Eucalyptus plantation (with some Conocarpus) has been established in 1955 along the tug (wadi / seasonal water course). The plantation is some 6 km ong, 0 - 50 m large (� 15 ha). Many of the Eucalypts are inclined or toppled - most probably due to the strong winds. At Gedebile as well Eucalypts have been planted before 20 years along the river, but they are at present being cut down, as "nothing grows under them". Their heavy impact on the water table is being criticised. The farmers would be willing and interested to plant other tree species to protect the bounds, but so far no seedlings are available. - Pinus radiata and halepensis have been tried. Due to the lack of mycorrhyza they are very slow growing.
- Prosopis is already a pest (s. Djibouti) - might be harvested for charcoal. After Basha Atilahi Yassin, e.g., the only Prosopis of some use in SL is P. cineraria (s. South - Yemen). Seeds can be procured through ICRAF.
- In the coastal plains Conocarpus and Parkinsonia do quite well. Parkinsonia being quite agressive and for that not very much estimated! - Ziziphus mauritanica, Schinus molle and Azadirachta indica are preferred to Eucalypts and Parkinsonia aculeata.

Appendix: NURSERIES:

During the heavy rains in may 1996 the nursery has been ruined and needs rehabilitation.

Some species trials could be run there

A second nursery is private, belonging to the MP and environmentalist Dr. Musa Awale. It is situated in the garden of the state guest house - a beautiful place. The size is some 10 x 35 m. The pot-size used 15 x 24 cm. Seedlings are irrigated daily - about 15 % are dead. The estimated total number is 3200 seedlings. The gardener claims 3000 trees + 3000 "small plants". Mango, pomegrenade, shinus, mango and ornamentals are produced. The fruit trees need 2 to 3 years! There is no need for a shading net, as there are old trees.

Gebile: The directorate (regional representation of the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range) is running a small nursery (in a big park) behind the building. 20 people produce some 6 - 8000 seedlings/y: Schinus, Tamarindus, Ziziphus and Eucalyptus. Bags are bought at Jibouti.

A problem is the salty water, leading to the killing of many seedlings. A birka would be needed. The seedlings are used for plantations at the village (truly - a very green, tree liking village!).

The replantation of areas damaged (= cleared) during the war, by bulldozers, would be needed, as well as of areas cleared for charcoal production.

At Boroma the situation is less attractive. An old nursery, established by SORRA in 1993 has been abandoned - the 6 month contract being terminated (sustainability = contract duration!. The seedlings are still there, the roots are growing through the bottom of the pots.

At Lafaroug Ahmed Shamoa, the chairman, shows us the nursery under the tree shade. They are helped by the WFP - but would need pots! This nursery is producing Conocarpus ("Damas") seedlings for Berbera. They claim that there is a large market for those seedlings - that are distributed for free.

At Berbera the Ministry of Livestock and Range has an other nursery, some 10 x 20 m. The species grown here are: Ziziphus mauritanica, Parkinsonia, Ac. albida, Tamarindus indica, Conocarpus lancifolius and Grevillea. Some 2800 seedlings are here. The nursery is working since half a year and is assisted with 20 ffw ratios (ridiculous productivity!). There are no funds for the protection of the plants and there are no sites.

[1]) map from Hunt report
[2]) National Range Authority. p 29: "6. Department of Forestry / 6.1 Background
[3]) FAO, table 1: growing stock (all Somalia), p 24:
[4]) Hunt Report on British Somalia: Appendix 1 - 4, p 17 - 25
[5]) UNICEF p 14:
[6]) ibid p 15:
[7]) ibid p 9:
[8]) EC/UNDP, p. XV:
[9]) EC/UNDP 1995, p XXI:
[10]) ibid p 29:
[11]) s. as well report on VTC, carpentry.
[12]) National Range Agency: p 3: chapter 1.2.2:
[13]) Three Year Dev. Plan 1979-1981
[14]) do, table 1, p 4:
[15]) Ministry of Finance, Customs department, Muhammed Duali, Dir. of Customs.
[16]) Not available as m3
[17]) based on I.M. Lewis, EC/UNDP
[18]) ibid. p. 31
[19]) ibid p 56:
[20]) Shaun McCarthy, HABITAT (UNHCS). priv. com.
[21]) National Range Agency. Dev. Plan 1980. p 17:
[22]) FAO 1993, p 96:

PART 4

A modular development programme

A Modular, Participatory and Iterative Development Programme

That means that Caritas is not going for large scale projects as e.g. the "Northern Range Development Project", where most the time and money was spent on establishing infrastructure. That means that Caritas does not want to start expensive, long term and large scale commitments (as e.g. the Batalala proposal - done by Caritas Egypt!) - that have no local backing and will break down totally, as soon as the donor decides to move out.

Due to the lack of information and of experience (especially of some positive experience!) on development projects in Somaliland, the approach will have to be carefully monitored, periodically evaluated and adapted - in an iterative way. [That to explain the lengthy title].

3.1 Water and/or Range

Webuser-Beitrag von Thomas Diettrich, Namibia, 10.11.03: Somalia Anti-Desertification: Artificial Ground-Water recharge by means of Subsurface Dams.

While in the valley of the Golis range water can be found almost all the year round at shallow wells (5-12m), more to the south, especially to the south-east, the water table is much deeper. Traditional water sources are springs, wells, wars (natural ponds), balleys (artificial ponds), and berkeds (large cementlined tanks). With the introduction of modern technology, the field has expanded to include deep drilled wells with motorized pumps. The economic handling of those is still "problematic":

At Ged Belad (meaning "big tree" - no such can be found anymore!) a well has been established, some 180m deep. During the dry season it is overused, the pump is working 24 hours a day. There is no money available to make a larger tank, to buy a new generator or to replace the pump. The fees collected for the water are just sufficient to pay for diesel.

At Tog Wajale, on the border to Ethiopia, the water depth is only 70m, but for the 15000 people the 10 drums of water delivered per day by the pump are insufficient.

On the other hand, the more water points are available, the more range is overgrazed!
So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected to it, are the main problems.
But those problems are interconnected. The range has been and is being neglected. Overgrazing, trampling and soil compaction increase the runoff. Soil and water conservation projects have priority. There is a need of transfer of technology knowledge to the Somali pastoralists [s. module EXTENSION].
Without range no livestock, without livestock no Somaliland!
So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected only be done in association with grazing management plans for the areas.
[This is a major part of the Forest and Range Laws. App. A)

Would have ... Unluckily the law is not ratified and the institution not really functional. Moreover the "National Water Committee" is composed of the Ministry of Planning, of Agriculture, of Livestock, Forest and Range, of Health, of the Interior - and chaired by the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources! The latter one is at present distributing licenses without any checking of need and without an environmental impact assessment. For UNOPS-projects e.g. the use of its checklist (s. appendix) is compulsory. Effects of project activities on agriculture, soil, water and air, noise, aquatic and other habitats, endangered species have to be checked. The approach and results of Oxfam might be of some interest here as well.

3.1.1 Watershed Management Models for Somaliland

The care being taken for rangeland is minimal. The main - well, the only - principle applied so far are the range reserves, giving the range a rest-period, a chance to regenerate.

There is no tradition of active measures to prevent erosion, to improve the range or the wood production. Economically this is very understandable, as a) the rangeland is common, b) range use and productivity is very marginal.

Efforts would not be profitable for a private person - but probably for a village whose motto should be: common care for common lands!).

If the needed care is given depends not only on ownership and economy, but as well on traditions and education.

Agriculture is the field where private efforts in soil stabilisation are profitable. First the measures, as contour - bounds or terraces, allow the production of crops. Second, dams and terraces could be used for agroforestry plantation with fodder grasses, shrubs or trees.

But only care - full agriculture can control erosion. Careless
agriculture and range-use are enhancing it, what the case of Ethiopia shows.
Terraces, as the other structures, need constant maintenance. If the economy of terrace farming is dwindling and terraces are neglected, the situation is worse than without terraces, as the case of Yemen shows.

Range-Woodland-Watershed-Management-Models

Dr. Awale proposes on the water sector to establish more rainwater catchments. At the time the cost of 200l water is 150 Somali Shillings.

Grass, hay and silage production should first be tried on a small scale, on farms - together with water harvesting and storing. Water catchment and production have to be improved.

Good grasses for fodder are:
Alphalpha / Aristida spinosa ("Majeen") / Atriplex / Bermuda Grass (Cynodon), Cenchrus ciliaris / Chrysopogon ancheri ("Dareemo" / "Dixi") / Eragrostis, Sudan Grass (Dactylodon).

Mainly local species should be used!!! Many of such are threatened - but still growing under the protection of bushes and of Aloe.

Item .................... Application


shrubs and trees

Leptadenia pyrotechnica     sand dune stabilisation
Ochradenus baccatus                   "
Salvadora persica            forage, fuel
Dobera glabra                fuel, forage
Acacia sp                    "   fence and feed
Balanites                    "        "
Capparis decidua             "    fuel
Cadaba glandulosa            forage
Cadaba farinosa              forage
Maerua crassifolia           "
Combretum aculeatum          forage
Crataeva adanoni             "    fuel
Bauhinia rufescens           "
Ptercoarpus lucens           "
Grewia sp                    "    fuel
Ziziphus mauritania          "    "    fence
" spina - christi            "   "          "

salt bush                             "

a) indigenous species (4 - ):

Grasses: Conchrus ciliaris, Dichanthirium sp, Sprorobolus sp 30), Andropogon anche, Cynodon dactylum, Panicum maximum, Panicum turgidum.
Salt bush: Atriplex sp, Salsola
Trees: Casuarina, Acacia cyanophylla, A. senegal, A. melifera, Opuntia (spineless), Grewia.
Exotics: Setana, Medicago
The Badlands, south-east of Sheikh, are a heavily eroded patch of red soil, where no vegetation is left except some Acacias (A. horrida). Eucalypts have been successfully planted on contours. Microdams and microcatchments have been stabilised with Sisal. Natural reseeding and revegetation is expected (what has indeed happened with similar experiments in Yemen).

3.2 Natural Forests and Reserves

3.2.1 The Natural Forests of Somaliland at Daloh and Erigavo

The geographical situation of those forests and the species growing there have been mentioned in chapter 2.1.2.

There is quite some interest of the local NGOs in its development (s. Appendix B):

ARDO, Forestry & Rural Development Organisation wants to develop Frankincense nurseries.

SOMTRAG, Somali Transformation Group, proposes a reforestation project at Erigavo, including a nursery, the rehabilitation of the sawmill and the improvement of charcoal kilns and stoves.

Bergstrom, T [1975]: Trials with cuttings from francincense trees in Debbis.
" : 1975 Forest Resources of Daloh
Flamwell, C [ - ]: Improved methods of production at Erigavo sawmill.
Lawrie [1958]: Forests of the Somaliland Protectorate
Lessau, J. [1975]: Report on Al Mado Forest Reserve
" [1976]: Forestry Development in N. Somalia FAO SOM/72/012 Field Doc. No. 2

Moreover the "Somalia Ecological Society" might have some interesting information as well and should be contacted:

Mr John D. Leefe OBE. The Spinney, Clipsham Road, Stretton, Oakham, LEIC 15 7QS. And: - Mr. A.S. Hassan, 31 Flyfield, Six Acres Estate, London N4 3PJ, England. FAX 0171 263 3658. As well as:
Dr Mats Thulin, working on the "Flora of Somalia!, Uppsala University, Dept. of Syst. Botany, Villavagen 6, S-75236, Uppsala, Sweden.

Daloh forest, on the northern escarpment, is quite close to Erigavo (9 km). The forest of some (6 x 40=) 240 km - 2 has been protected (gazetted) by the British. As it is the area with the highest mountains (7927 ft) it can be expected that the rainfall is quite high. There is a tourist lodge, but its actual shape is unknown.

Most people here are herdsmen. Some farming has started and a few fruit trees have been planted. Some people are livestock traders and import food, clothes, biscuits from Yemen.

The natural regeneration seems to be good - but there are different opinions - and still there are several proposals on Frankincense and Juniper nurseries claiming a lack of natural regeneration.

The regeneration of Boswellia seems to be a problem , only vegetative propagation is possible. Those trees are owned privately, highly estimated and well protected. It has to be checked if there is a real demand for seedlings.

Some Cypress trees have been imported by the British. If records of species trials are available has to be checked in Britain.

Other NGOs and their activities: CARE (irrigation), COOPI (hospital), Vet.Aid., Health Unlimited (health posts), GTZ (agricultural development, fisheries, income generation)).

The local population is very mixed (well, somali mix). Erigavo is the meeting point of three larger and one smaller (Las Gored) tribal faction (clan). Still, in 1993 a peace meeting has been held and since that they look to keep quiet and even inter - clan marriages occur.

Normally the "distribution of favours" (projects) has to be done in a very sensitive way, consulting at any rate the elders. In case of arising troubles that are "not unfrequent" (COOPI has to evacuate every 3 to 6 month!) the way over land (10 hours to Berbera - Hargeisa) or sea (Hays/Mayt) would be safe. For wood transport anyhow the overland road has an other risky point at Bura'o, where troubles about camels are rather common.

3.2.2 Traditional management methods - the Reserve System

Two traditional management methods that are of some help for forest and range improvement are known, as:

Drought Reserves: between the wells, at a good distance, areas are reserved for the dry season, that means they will not be used for 4 to 6 months.

- School Grazing Reserves: For the pupils that bring along a cow or camel for the milk!

The cutting of branches for fodder purposes is done in a careless way. Lopping and pollarding are not properly established methods.

Frankincense has precisely the same price per kg - that means it is economically not very promising and will most probably not be of much help in the protection of the forests.

3.3 Charcoal use, production, substitution and saving

Wood cutting for charcoal is especially a problem in the North- West. A survey, made in 1994 by OXFAM America, is presented at the workshop by Muh. Haji of SORRA. At Boroma area the types of stoves were checked at 800 households. The main type is from metal, but often 3 stones are used, especially for the use of firewood.

At the average 4 kg per day and household are used, what makes 17000 tons/y for the 12000 households, with costs of 84000 Somali Shillings. Additional 131 teashops (31 have been checked) use at an average 8kg per day, totally 310 tons per year. The bakeries (10) use 2 camel loads of logs per day, the load � 15 - 20 kg, 10 - 15,000 Ssh. The average transport distance is 34 km. Some charcoal is exported to Jibuti.

The total use at Boroma is some 18000 tons per year = 150000 trees. The distance at which to collect/find fuelwood is already some 3 - 5 km!

For the transport a lorry is rented from the city. 1 load equaling 6 tons, creates a net-income of 10,000 Somali Shillings. 3 lorries are filled per month (18 tons, = 30,000 ssh). On the retail market, sold in 20 - 25kg bags at 1500ssh, that lot (6 tons = 240 bags) will amount to 360,000 ssh. The major amount goes to the big merchants and the retailers.

No special selection is taken on species. Small branches are left, some of them are used for cooking in the village.

Fuelwood and charcoal is the business of the forestry department. They should monitor the tree use and the harvesting.

A rotational system for wood harvestt, replantation (nursery needed) and charcoal production has to be developed with the participation of the ministry and the charcoal associations. Registered are actually LOLEIS, IFTIN and ILEYS. Charcoal production areas should be set up in blocks and delimited. Producers should be obliged to use the woodlands carefully, sustainably, that means, to take care for the natural regeneration or for replantations! All this will need the acceptance and the commitment of the local elders. As pilot areas Paliegubedile and Damal, each some 15 to 25 km from Hargeisa, are proposed.

The price is not decisive, and it is not considered as too cheap by Somalis. Especially during the rainy season prices can raise from 1500 to 3600 Ssh a bag. So

There should be a chance to reduce charcoal consumption by improving stoves.

Recommendations on the improvement of stoves and ovens:

There are several individuals (Ing. A - Rashid Derie Farah) and NGOs (MUSTAQBAL Voluntary Organisation, Togdher Region, Burao, Nuradin JJJ. Samatar) that are interested in the development of coal reserves at Berbera. But this kind of business, gas (at present from Jibouti, very expensive. Possibly from Ethiopia) or coal development, should really be done as business by a private organisation that can be motivated (ev. by a tender!) to invest. The use of gas, as well as of more developed solar energy (parabola, solar cells ...) needs hard currency.

3.4 Community-Participation / Funding

Community participation and cost-recovery are very critical subjects in Somaliland. The fact is clear: "Popular participation in development is an appealing and indeed necessary goal if development efforts are to be sustained." That there is a certain "lack" is felt by the Somalis themselves. It is expressed in the proverb: "Ceel na uma, cidina uma maqna: The well is neglected and empty, and there is no one working on our behalf." Even Prof. Lewis, a longstanding expert on and friend of the Somalis indicates the problem of kickstarting development in Somalia: "... despite massive injections of foreign assistance which, particularly after the terrible 1975 drought, earned Somalia the reputation of being an aid grave-yard."

Nothing is known (well, not much has been studied, at least by Swissgroup) on traditional levels of participation, as the project was started as emergency assistance with little development orientation. For the contact with the villages (elders) the project often relies on local NGOs as intermediaries. The following text can be taken as an example on approaches to be avoided (Scoones: "In Somalia pastoralists have a tradition of cooperation in the management of rangelands. Successful cooperation takes place where there are groups of users without wide differences in wealth or in economic objectives, where customary contract law (xeer) is well developed and where functioning customary kin and clan structures facilitate co-operation on a wide range of issues. Cooperation is undermined where the government claims management sovereignty over the rangelands, where individual rich herders or merchants introduce different management objectives or where donor - assisted projects undermine customary decision - making and enforcement processes. The lessons drawn for a more successful rangeland development strategy include: strengthening the force of customary xeer contracts by putting them in written form and using them as a basis for formal laws, a closer and more symbiotic relationship in pastoral areas between customary authorities and locally elected officials and the bureaucracy and the alignment of development plans for range and water with customary common property resource boundaries and management rules."

Other examples are e.g. fees for school education, fees for water, fees for medicaments, drugs - as well veterinary (covering drugs only).

The idea of a revival of the self-help-schemes might be useful. (UNESCO report, p 94): "The various regional and district development programmes initiated at the local level are usually funded through self - help mechanisms. This concept is based on Law No. 39 ratified in 1972, and updated through decree MG/1/4/,1422/86 issued by the Ministry of Interior in May 1986. Self-help schemes must be proposed with a comprehensive plan of action and budget. Plans are considered by the district self-help committee. If approved, funds are collected on a voluntary basis from the community, and these are jointly managed by the self-help scheme committee and the permanent committee of the Local People's Assembly. This scheme is utilized to give financial support to SHWs and TBAs in the WHO-supported PHC project in the Lower Shabelle."

3.5 Formal and Non-Formal Education, Training and Extension.

This strong tradition in oral knowledge exchange will have to be taken into account for any training and extension activities.

The emphasis on non-formal and "verbal" education has been expressed in the UNESCO-report (Chapter 3, Education):

It will be wise, to take the recommendation of Scoones and to go first for human capacity building, instead of capital investment.

The UNESCO report, quoting "Two studies on educational wastage in Middle Shabeelle (1985) and Waqooyi Galbeed and Awdal Regions (1986)" found five main fields of problems in education:

b) socio-cultural factors: parental lack of confidence in quality of school, preference for Koranic schools, female retention for traditional household reasons; its inadequate services cannot persuade parents to sacrifice the time children normally spend in occupational labour (s. up).

c) infrastuctural weakness: young, poorly paid teachers, poor school facilities, inaccessibility of schools. There is a crisis (already in 1988!) due to the government's inability to finance educational costs on a sustained basis due to the unavailability of fiscal resources. While a qualified, motivate, and well supported teacher is perhaps the single most important ingredient necessary for a sound educational process - teachers are 80% underqualified or undertrained. In the three northern regions there were 27 % qualified, 41 % national service, 32% Egyptians in 1988. 30% had a primary school background + 1 year training, 57 % two years training, 32 % of the teachers are female. The mean age is 20 years!

d) goal-oriented factors: The educational system is not believed strong enough to lead to employment or economic survival, that means, there is no guarantee of employment after the school. The same problem is mentioned in the report on the carpentry section of VTC: "The trainees of the VTC will have to engage in private activities, to establish their own workshops - there are no jobs. So they should in fact be trained as private entrepreneurs, taught in economics, maintenance and management as well as in the technical fields."

e) mobility of the population

3.6.1.1 The Situation in Formal education

Recommendations :

- local support has to be encouraged
- textbooks have to be revised to reflect curriculae more responsive to the needs of the children and the community. [Precisely the same recommendation is the core of women's education (s. next chapter). So far there is no teaching material available for environmental awareness raising or education. For this kind of training the Ministry of planning should be leading, as different Ministries, as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, education and interior are involved.
- method of improving the production and distribution of textbooks
- improve technical and vocational schools by
- revising and unifying curriculae of technical and vocational education
- upgrading teacher quality
- production and distribution of instructional materials;
- improving the quality and quantity of equipment.

3.5.3 Non Formal education The Ministry of Awqaf (DG Muh. Ahmed Ali) exists since 2-3 years. It has established pre-school curriculae, including environment (trees and animals) and it cooperates with the Ministry of Education and emits radio programs.

But the limits are clear as well.

3.5.4 Extension

But most of the villages have never been contacted by extensionists from NGOs or the government - while (s. introduction to the chapter) information and extension (and assistance!) would be welcome. The enormous area with scattered, small settlements makes extension difficult, especially what concerns transports. At Gebile e.g. 5 extensionists (trained agronomists) are working with 1 car that brings them each to a village in the morning and collects them in the afternoon. The main topics for extension are:

Its approach was (quite close to the one used by the "Natural Forests Section" in Yemen!) as a valuable

Recommendation for Projects on Extension:

The foreign donor agency should take into account the recommendations of Scoones:
- Long time frames are needed for iterative planning with the involvement of pastoralists. Successful planning and intervention may take 15 years or more.
- Start small and build up, focusing on institutional capacity at a local level.

So far there is not even one agricultural and veterinary school open in Somaliland! Everything was in Mogadishu - but some potential teachers are available. There is some potential to involve NGOs into extension (s. app. B). Even on the education of extensionist proposals have been submitted: Ahmed Jama Sa'eed, Nolosan NGO, Bora'o: Rehabilitation of Wadaaamagoy Rural Development Institute (WRDI) for the training in range, livestock, forestry and charcoal. But before extension is started, assisting private organisations, the messages, ways and methods should be developed in strong cooperation with the MLFR! Monitoring and evaluation procedures have to be developed.

3.5.4.1 Extension Among Nomads

The recommendation, to do extension at water points (and teashops and the like) has been largely and successfully used in Yemen as well.

For the training of the extensionists we will encounter the same problems as listed above for the teachers (point a) to e)). The educational background, the training of trainers, will be poor. "Courses will have to emphasise practical training, field work, and role playing in favour of normal lectures." There are still people available, trained and experienced, but due to the long period of professional inactivity during the civil war, they will need refresher courses (2 months, ev. WFP assisted. s. proposals of MLFR in App A.). Participants out of the strata of ex - soldiers should be selected carefully, taking into account their psychological fitness - and their origin (ideally from the place of work!). Many turned nuts ("trigger happy") during the war and might wreck havoc if sent to villages.

Recommendations:

1. For rehabilitation, replantation, reseeding and soil stabilisation a mobile extension and rangeland rehabilitation brigade should be created.

2. In the same time creating jobs and saving the environment. Vet Aid is on mobile vets, forestry needs mobile rangers! The idea of the mobile rangers is not new, it was handled in such a way. Field work was the dominant part (s. up). Work had to be certified by the elders signing the weekly reports.

The first thing to develop will be the extension message, then an action plan, a monitoring concept and evaluation criteria.

A last valuable hint, given by Dr Awale concerns incentives. Incentives are important for the Somali society - but it does, opposite to expectations! - not need to be money! The issuing of diplomas and similar rewards/recognitions proofed very successful. It enhances competition between groups. A Somali saying is:
"If I did something good for you -say it,let the people know it." That means that: Honour is (probably still) more important than money!

3.6 Women in environment

The women are trained in producing handicraft as waste paper baskets (90% analphabetic population!), batik (has a high standard in Kenya, none at all in Somaliland), table-linen (Somalis, as Arabs, eat on the floor) ... and more of the kind. Its the same products in Yemen and Kenya, all over the place. Rather useless and so, with a very limited potential for income generation. (UNESCO expressed the same critique!).

It has to be admitted, that the women enjoy the courses, it is "a change" for them.

A similar problem are the solar cookers. A heavy propaganda is being undertaken - I myself have taken part in it for a year in Yemen. But in Yemen we tried the thing, ourselves and with the people. The only thing that really gets cooked is tomatoes! Rice, the staple food, never gets really cooked, and especially it is impossible to produce dry rice. The opinion of the women's expert was: "So the people have to adapt themselves." She means the people have to adapt to the cookers - not the cookers to the people's taste! [Bullshit - no further comments!].

In those nomadic and agricultural families the division of labour is gender - related. Women have to take care for the children, their education, the household, fetching water and fuel, to work on the farm, sow, look after the livestock, making household utensils, weaving the portable nomadic house (aqal), they preserve food and may also sell milk, ghee (clarified butter), mats and ropes, charcoal, and wild fruits to supplement the family income.

Among urban women the "poor women often gain less benefit from the amenities of city life. They are disadvantaged in measure of access to health and educational services and are often forced to turn to petty trading and domestic work, which offers a precarious income." The income generated by women is important for many families: "26 percent of home - based income-earners were women, while in Waaberi District almost one-third of households depended upon women's earnings. The largest number of working women were in the age group 30-34 years, with many widowed or divorced."

... It is apparent that making female education more meaningful to life situations by including health, use of environmental resources, nutrition, and improve occupational skills would lead to greater support from the family and community for female education"

3.7 Research, Data, Documentation

To say that: "it is difficult to get data in Somaliland" would be almost euphemistic. Due to the different revolutions and unrest in Somalia lots of documents have been lost.

The major documentation center for Somaliland is now at - UNDOS, Centenary House, Off Ring Road, Westlands, Nairobi. Tel. 254 - 2 441. The collection is by far not complete. Literature, mainly in the form of project reports, will have to be requested from:
- FAO, British Admiralty, GTZ, IDA, IFAD, IGAD: Ahmed Junis Habane / Muh. Said Omar, ILCA (ADIS), Kuwait Fund, Lorri, John: Anglo-Somali Society, Oxfam, Rosalind David, WFP, World Bank.
The whole relevant information should be collected and made available at a local databank.

Registration, monitoring and evaluation of NGOs should be started. At the time problems with the organisation of the government (plans and duties) are still prevalent.

A database on local specialists (local experts) would be a valuable source for development.

For all this, the Ministry of Planning should coordinate with the other interested ministries, the NGOs and the Environmental group.