Source: www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk
Country Information & Policy Unit
IMMIGRATION AND NATIONALITY DIRECTORATE
HOME OFFICE, UNITED KINGDOM Somaliland

1. SCOPE OF DOCUMENT

1.1 This Country Report has been produced by the Country Information and Policy Unit, Immigration and Nationality Directorate, Home Office, for use by Home Office officials involved in the asylum / human rights determination process. The Report provides general background information about the issues most commonly raised in asylum / human rights claims made in the United Kingdom. It is not a detailed or comprehensive survey.

1.2 The Report is compiled from a wide range of recognised sources and does not contain any Home Office opinion or policy. All information in the Report is attributed, throughout the text, to original source material, which has been made available to those working in the asylum / human rights determination process. The Report aims to provide only a brief summary of the source material quoted. For a more detailed account, the relevant source documents should be examined directly.

1.3 The information contained in this Country Report is, by its nature, limited to information that we have been able to identify from various well-recognised sources. The contents of this Report are not exhaustive and the absence of information under any particular heading does not imply that any analysis or judgement has been exercised to exclude that information, but simply that relevant information on the subject has not been identified from the sources that have been consulted. Equally, the information included in the Reports should not be taken to imply anything beyond what is actually stated.

1.4 The great majority of the source material is readily available in the public domain. Copies of other source documents, such as those provided by government offices, may be provided upon request.

1.5 All sources have been checked for currency, and as far as can be ascertained, contain information which remained relevant at the time this Report was issued. Some source documents have been included because they contain relevant information not available in more recent documents.

1.6 This Country Report and the accompanying source material are publicly disclosable. Where sources identified in this Report are available in electronic form the relevant link has been included. The date that the relevant link was accessed in preparing the report is also included. Paper copies of the source documents have been distributed to nominated officers within IND.

1.7 It is intended to revise this Report on a six-monthly basis while the country remains within the top 35 asylum producing countries in the United Kingdom. Information contained in Country Reports is inevitably overtaken by events that occur between the 6 monthly publications. Caseworkers are informed of such changes in country conditions by means of Country Information Bulletins.

2. GEOGRAPHY

2.1 As reflected in Africa South of the Sahara 2004 (ASS 2004), the Somali Republic (Somalia) has an area of 637,657 sq. km and borders Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti. In mid 2000 the UN estimated the population to be 8,778,000. [1a] (p 989) Somalia is divided into a total of 18 administrative regions or provinces; the largest city is the capital Mogadishu (population estimated in 2000 as 1,219,000). [1a] (p 989) [16] (p. 501) Other important towns include Hargeisa (capital of the self-declared independent "Republic of Somaliland" in the north-west), Kismayo, Baidoa, Berbera, Bossaso, Garowe (the "Puntland" capital), Merka (Merca) and Brava (it should however be noted that there are frequently variations in the spelling of place names in Somalia). [1a] (p 989) [50a] As noted in the Europa World Year Book 2003 (EWYB 2003), the majority of the population is Sunni Muslim; there is also a small Christian community, mostly Roman Catholic. [1b] (p 3745)

2.2 As stated in the report of the joint Danish-British fact finding mission based in Nairobi, Kenya, published December 2000 (JFFMR December 2000), Somali society is characterised by membership of clan-families, which are sub-divided into clans, and many sub-clans; in addition there are a number of minority groups, many of which are also divided into sub groups. [7a] (p 80-7) The clan structure comprises the four major "noble" clan-families of Darod, Hawiye, Isaaq and Dir. "Noble" in this sense refers to the widespread Somali belief that members of the major clans are descended from a common Somali ancestor. Two further clans, the Digil and Mirifle (also collectively referred to as Rahanweyn), take, in many aspects, an intermediate position between the main Somali clans and the minority groups. [1a] (p 989) [7a] (p 80-7) Large numbers of ethnic Somalis also live in neighbouring Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. [7a] (p 80-7)

2.3 The national language is Somali; it was adopted as the official language in 1972 at which time it was without a written form, its alphabet was adapted in 1973 using a modified Roman alphabet. [1a] (p 989) [16] (p 501-502) The EWYB 2003 states that Arabic is also in official use and both English and Italian are widely spoken. [1b] (p 3745) The JFFMR 2000 and a further joint Dutch, Danish and British mission undertaken in May-June 2002 (JFFMR July 2002) indicates that in addition to these languages some minority groups speak their own language, the Bajuni for example speak Ki-Bajuni. However in all contacts with the Somali speaking population there would additionally be a need to speak at least some Somali. [7a] (p 29) [7c] (p 1)

3. ECONOMY

3.1 Somalia is very poor with a market-based economy in which most of the work force is employed as pastoral nomads (an estimated 80%) or subsistence farmers. [1a] (p 1000) [2a] (p 1) [50c] (p 24) According to ASS 2004, the economy is primarily agricultural and is based mainly on herding camels, sheep, goats and cattle. The principal exports are livestock and charcoal in the fertile area between the Juba and Shabelle rivers in the south bananas are the principal cash crop; there is very little industry. [1a] (p 1000) According to the US Department of State's Report on Human Right Practices covering 2003 (USSDR 2003), insecurity and adverse weather have affected the already poor economic situation. [2a] (p 1)

3.2 Economic problems have severely limited employment opportunities giving rise to serious unemployment problems. [2a] (p 1) [3c] (p 6) As noted in the UNDP's Socio economic survey 2002 (UNDP 2002), only a total of 56.4% of the population is estimated to be economically active [50c] (p 20) According to a UN Security Council Report of February 2003 (UNSCR February 2003), with Mogadishu and Kismayo ports remaining closed other ports, such as Bossaso in Puntland, have benefited from an increase in trade. [3b] (p 3) According to the African Research Bulletin (ARB), the private sector has thrived in "Somaliland" with shops in the capital Hargeisa reportedly well stocked with imported goods. Nevertheless, the economy remains fragile and livestock, together with remittances from the diaspora, remain the economic backbone. [11k]

3.3 In the first half of 2003, the World Bank resumed operations in Somalia (for the first time since 1991) through its project for low-income countries under stress initiative. The World Bank is supporting peace building activities overseen by United Nations agencies including HIV/AIDS prevention, training centres and livestock trade. [3c] (p 7) [10ar] According to the UN's Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), lending to Somalia is prevented due to the fact that the country is in arrears, lacks a functioning government and is affected by an unstable security situation. However, it was reported that the proposed activities would be covered by a grant from the World Bank's Post-Conflict fund. [10ar]

3.4 As noted in the UN Security Council Report of Febraury 2004 (UNSCR February 2004), remittances to Somalia provide approximately $1 billion of foreign income annually. A UN-sponsored conference in London in December 2003, which involved financial sector regulators from Europe and the US and representatives from Somali remittance companies, resulted in the establishment of the Somali Financial Services Association. This regulatory body aims to fill the void in regulation caused by the limited mandate of central government, thus improving the credibility of the Somali remittance sector with foreign Governments. The groundwork is also being laid for the establishment of a Somali livestock export health certification system.

The United Nations has recently established a project to systematically support this process, in recognition of the importance of the sector to Somali livelihoods. [3f] (p 9) For further information on the economy refer to ASS 2004 [1a] (p 1007-1010) and the Joint Nordic/British Fact Finding Mission Report of March 2004 (JFFMR March 2004) [7d] (p 51-2)

4. HISTORY

4.75 As stated in the EWYB 2003, having taken control of the northwest in 1991, the Isaaq-dominated SNM announced its official support for the secession of the former territory of British Somaliland from Somalia. The same month the SNM Central Committee elected Abd ar-Rahman Ahmed Ali'Tur' as President of the self-proclaimed 'Republic of Somaliland'. [1b] (p 3746) As reflected in ASS 2004, without international recognition, Somaliland was short of much-needed international aid, with only assistance from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to help with reparation of the war-ravaged infrastructure. Mohamed Ibrahim Egal, a Habr Awal clansman, former Prime Minister of British Somaliland and of the Somali Republic, was elected President in May 1993, defeating President Tur. However, clan differences remained. The Habr Yunis objected to Egal's cabinet appointments in June 1993 claiming they were calculated to foment clan rivalry. In 1994 the Tur disavowed Somaliland's independence and rejected Egal's Government.

4.76 As reflected in ASS 2004, violent clashes between forces loyal to Egal's government and those defecting to Tur began in the Somaliland capital, Hargeisa, in October 1994. By December 1994, 30,000 people, three-quarters of the city's population, had fled, mainly to Ethiopia. Fighting spread to other areas of Somaliland in 1995. In April 1995 government forces clashed with Garhadji (Isaaq) clansmen who had allied themselves with the anti-secessionist USF of the Issa (Dir) clan. Peace talks between the rival factions were held in December 1995 and in May 1996 rebel forces surrendered their weapons in Hargeisa. A new Constitution for Somaliland, containing a number of human rights provisions relating to the independence of the judiciary and protection against arbitrary imprisonment, became effective in February 1997 for a three-year period. Shortly after Egal was re-elected President by an electoral college for a 5-year term. [1a] (p 999)

4.77 In September 1998, community leaders handed over military vehicles and weapons in Erigavo, in the eastern Somaliland region of Sanaag, under the terms of an agreement made in 1994 to demobilise local militia groups. Over 80 members of the Habr Yunis clan faction also joined the official Somaliland security forces. [15b][17] In February 1999 President Egal hinted that he was not totally opposed to eventual Somali reunification. This apparent reversal of his earlier position regarding the secession of Somaliland angered some SNM members and Somaliland parliamentarians. In May 1999 Egal approved a resolution allowing for the introduction of multi-party politics in Somaliland providing that any new parties are not based on religion or clans. [18b][19d]

Referendum on independence and legalisation of political parties, 2001

4.78 As reflected in ASS 2004, in May 2001 a referendum was held in Somaliland on a new constitution. [1a] (p 999) [21] The referendum was peaceful. [21] As reflected in ASS 2004, according to official results, 91.7% of voters approved the new constitution for the territory. [1a] (p 999) According to the UK-based Financial Times newspaper, an American, Swiss and British team of observers assembled by the Initiative and Referendum Institute concluded that the referendum was conducted freely and fairly. [21] As reflected by IRIN, in July 2001 President Egal announced the formation of a new political party, the Allied People's Democratic Party (UDUB, meaning'pillar'), in preparation for planned parliamentary and presidential elections [10j] Some Elders declared the establishment of the new party unconstitutional. Several MPs tabled a parliamentary motion to impeach Egal, alleging mismanagement of state funds to finance the new party and treason, but their motion was rejected in August 2001 by 38 votes to 37. [1a] (p 999) [10j]

4.79 According to the China-based Xinhua news agency, in January 2002, the Somaliland council of Elders extended President Egal's term of office by one year to give the opposition time to prepare for elections. 72 of the 74 members of the council present voted in favour of extending the President's term of office to February 2003. Several opposition parties had called for more time to prepare for elections, which had been scheduled to take place in February 2002. [9b]

Death of President Egal - May 2002

4.80 As reflected in ASS 2004, President Egal died in South Africa, where he was receiving medical treatment, in early May 2002. In accordance with Somaliland's Constitution, the Vice-President, Dahir Riyale Kahin, was inaugurated as the new president of Somaliland to serve the remainder of Egal's term. Kahin, Vice-President since 1997 had served as a secret police officer during the Barre regime. [1a] (p 999) As noted by IRIN, the smooth transition, which saw Kahin take power with little fanfare, confounded all the sceptics who had claimed "Egal was the glue" that held Somaliland together. [10z]

Civic elections - December 2002

4.81 As noted by IRIN and ARB, civic (local) elections, witnessed by members of the international community, took place in December 2002. A total of six parties participated, the ruling UDUB received almost 197,938 votes whilst their nearest challengers, the Kulmiye, polled 83,158. The Somaliland Electoral Commission (SEC) described the elections as a success and independent observers described the polling as peaceful. [10y][10z][11e]

4.82 However, the chairman of Kulmiye, Ahmed Silano, referred to several complaints against UDUB for using unlawful campaign strategy. He claimed that civil servants had been warned and threatened with sacking, imprisonment or loss of their jobs if they failed to vote for UDUB. Silano also alleged public funds and civil servants had been used to advance the political interests of UDUB, a claim denied by the ruling party. [11e][14i] According to ARB, two other parties competing in the elections, Sahan and Asad, stated they were not happy with the results siting irregularities. [11e] As IRIN noted, there was no voting in the disputed Las Anod district following an attack earlier in December 2002 on the visiting Somaliland leader, Kahin. [10y]

Presidential elections - April 2003

4.83 As reflected by the BBC, following two postponements in January and March 2003 the first ever multiparty presidential elections were held on 14 April 2003. [14i] Somaliland President Dahir Riyale Kahin faced challenges from Ahmed Muhammad "Silaanyo" of the Kulmiye party and Faisal Ali "Warabe" of the Justice and Welfare party (UCID). [10ab][11i][14i] According to IRIN, Fawziya Yussuf Haji Adam, a female candidate who had been planning to run as an independent was barred from standing following a high court ruling that no independent candidate could stand.

She accused influencing the Supreme Court and noted the UDUB published the decision before the court had written to the SEC to advise of its ruling. She also noted that the late decision had left her with no time to take further action and forced withdrawal. [10ab] As noted in USSDR 2003, according to the Somaliland constitution only three candidates are permitted to contest general elections. [2a] (p 8)

4.84 As noted by IRIN, in advance of the elections, both opposition candidates standing expressed their concerns that polling may not be free and fair. [10ab][10ag] However, although Somaliland is still to receive international recognition, foreign observers from the UK, the US, South Africa, Ethiopia and the European Union participated in monitoring the election. [3c] (p 5) [10ag] According to IRIN and ARB, the chairman of the SEC polling was generally reported to have been peaceful, a view confirmed by the South African monitoring team. [10ag][11i] The SEC further acknowledged some problems in the disputed regions of Sool and Sanaag, where it was reported that voting proceeded normally in some districts, but in others it had not gone very well because of security reasons. The week before the elections the Puntland authorities had stated there was no way that elections would take place in Sool and Sanaag. They claimed people of the area did not want the elections, so their wishes must be respected. [10ag]

4.85 The SEC announced results of the poll on 19 April 2003 declaring Kahin the winner over "Silaanyo" by a margin of just 80 votes. With 498,639 votes cast by an electorate of around 800,000, this gave Kahin 42.08% of the vote and "Silaanyo" 42.07%. [10ai][11i] As noted by IRIN, whilst maintaining that people had voted freely, as with the civic elections "Saline" accused the ruling UDUB party of mobilising public resources "to benefit them [the party]", he also alleged the results were changed "by last minute tampering with the figures". Whilst signalling his parties intention to challenge the result "Silaanyo" stressed his party would not do anything "to compromise the integrity, peace and stability" achieved by Somaliland. [10ai]

4.86 As noted by IRIN, the Kulmiye party subsequently conducted its own recount and claimed that this put "Silaanyo" ahead by 76 votes of Kahin, the declared winner. Kulmiye representatives stated that results from two districts that had favoured "Silaanyo" had been mistakenly counted and credited to UDUB. [10aj] The SEC, having previously declared the poll "free and fair" and denied that the results had been influenced by any irregularities, confirmed that it stood by the results announced on 19 April 2002. [10ai][10aj] The SOC announced the matter was out of their hands and Kulmiye would have to take their evidence to the constitutional court and let the court decide. [10aj]

4.87 According to ARB, some of the Mogadishu based press reported that demonstrations against the outcome of the poll took place in most big Somaliland towns on 20 April 2003. There were also claims that the SOC had favoured the UDUB. Meanwhile, at the end of April 2003 Jamhuuriya , a Somaliland based publication, reported that army officers who were members of the SNM were sacked from their posts when it was discovered that they had supported the opposition Kulmiye in the elections. [11i]

4.88 As reflected in the UNSCR June 2003, on 11 May 2003 the "Somaliland" High Court announced the official results, amending the earlier figures and placing the UDUB in the lead by 217 votes, the Kulmiye party rejected these figures. Kahin was formally sworn in as President on 16 May 2003, with Ahmad Yusuf Yasin as his deputy. Meanwhile the House of Elders extended the tenure of the House of Representatives for two years and its own term for three years. [3c] (p 5) On 25 May 2003 the Kulmiye party publicly stated that it did not recognise the legitimacy of President Kahin, but reiterated the previously expressed commitment to safeguard the country's peace and stability. [10ai][11j] As noted by ARB, a senior party official called for talks with UDUB as equals and without any preconditions stating that this would be in the national interest. [11j] As noted by IRIN, in June 2003 the Kulmiye party did accept the election results, reportedly in response to pressure from elders and local business leaders. There were unconfirmed reports suggesting that some form of unspecified agreement had been reached with the ruling UCUB. [10av]

Tension with Puntland - December 2003

4.89 As reflected in the UNSCR February 2004, on 21 December 2003, the Somaliland Parliament adopted a resolution, asserting Somaliland's authority over the Sool and Sanaag regions, which are also claimed by Puntland. In a letter dated 22 December 2003, addressed to the United Nations Political Office for Somalia, the Puntland administration stated that it would not fail to use all means at its disposal to defend the security and territorial integrity of Puntland. On 27 December 2003, forces loyal to the Puntland administration assumed control of Las-Anod district in Sool region. In view of the escalation of tension between the two administrations, the Kenyan Foreign Minister issued a statement on 19 January 2004 on behalf of the IGAD Facilitation Committee, calling on both parties to exercise maximum restraint. [3f] (p 4) The deterioration in relations with Puntland followed further security incidents in October 2003 when three humanitarian workers (two British and an Italian) were killed by unidentified gunmen [10bx][3f] [63a][63b]

State structures

Somaliland

5.27 Since May 1993 Somaliland has had a Cabinet of Ministers and a Parliament with proportional clan representation comprised of two chambers each with 75 members; the House of Representatives and the Council of Elders (the Guurti). [1a] (p 999) [19d] The current constitution provides for political parties; civic elections in which six parties participated took place in December 2002 and presidential elections took place in April 2003.

Judiciary

Somaliland

5.36 As reflected in ASS 2004, the Constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judiciary was not independent in practice. As noted by the UN Commission on Human Rights in December 2002, within Somaliland secular law is generally applied with Shari'a being restricted to family cases. [4] (p15-17) According to AI 2003, in mid 2002 it was reported that many judges in Somaliland were arbitrarily dismissed. [6b]

5.37As noted in the UNSCRs October 2003 and February 2004, the UN is assisting local authorities in "Somaliland" to improve the administration of justice by supporting the establishment of the rule of law, local capacity-building for law enforcement agencies and improving the application of human rights standards. The training session for members of judiciary, which began in August 2003, was completed on 21 November and provided training for 50 legal professionals in substantive law and procedure fundamental to the functioning of the judiciary.

Medical Services

5.59 A lack of adequate health care is one of the biggest problems facing Somalis today. According to figures reported the International NGO, M,decins Sans FrontiSres (MSF) in December 2002, 72% of the population has no access to healthcare. [5] (p 1) As stated in the JFFMR March 2004, according to MSF the overall level of healthcare and possibilities for treatment in central and southern Somalia were very poor. The lack of basic medical training amongst the personnel (doctors and particularly nurses) operating at the limited number of hospitals and clinics in the region. It was estimated that up to 90% of the doctors and health staff in hospitals were insufficiently trained.

5.60 As noted in the UNDP Socio economic survey of Somalia 2002 (UNDP 2002), About 95% of the urban population and 60% of the rural and nomadic population confirmed the availability of at least one health facility within an average distance of 1.3 km and 2.4 km respectively. About 63% of the households in urban areas and 36% in rural and nomadic communities confirmed their affordability. The major health facilities are Mother and Child Health centres (MCH, 42.4%) and hospitals (41.2%) in urban areas and health posts (23.9%) and MCH (19%) in rural and nomadic areas.Other facilities include out-patient dispensaries (OPD),mobile health clinics and health centres.

5.61 MSF stated that it was stated that for those with sufficient funding to pay for treatment, primary healthcare was available in all regions. MSF indicated that women and children had a better chance of receiving treatment on the grounds that they are less likely to be the target of militias. It was explained that women and children are in a position to move more freely in Somalia, because they can cross clan-borders much easier than single men whose clan affiliation may hinder their freedom of movement. It was added that single men, without the financial backing of their clan, would find it very difficult to access medical treatment. It was also noted that, due to the distance, security situation, and poor road networks in most regions, referral cases are difficult to arrange without sufficient financial support from clans.

5.62 The actual situation does vary within different parts of the country although the few health workers who remain tend to be based in the more secure urban centres. [5] (p 2-3) [14g][40] According to a representative of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) reporting for the BBC, in Mogadishu there are two public hospitals with facilities to perform certain surgical procedures; the formerly 127 (now 75) bed Keysaney hospital, a former prison located 7km north of the city and the 65 bed Medina hospital that serves the south of the city. Much surgery is undertaken on the victims of gunshot wounds. [7d] (p 48)[14g][57a][63a] (p 6) Other hospitals in Mogadishu include the Benadir and Al-Hayat; both have larger capacities and the Forlinini, which treats patients with chronic diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy. [9d][29b][40] On 21 November 2003, Canada-based Somali Qaranimo website reported that a new hospital SomRus hospital staffed with Russian doctors opened in the Taleex (sic) district of Mogadishu. [56a]

5.63 According to MSF, public hospitals in Galkayo (Mudug) and Kismayo (Lower Juba) serve enormous areas. These hospitals were beset with insecurity, lack of funding, equipment, qualified staff and drugs. The only other hospitals in southern/central regions - in Belet Weyne (Hiran) and Baidoa (Bay and Bakool) - have been closed for some years. [5] (p 2) [7d] (p 48) According to the UN's independent expert in December 2002, the hospital in Bossaso, Puntland is reportedly equipped to deal with minor cases, more serious cases are reportedly sent to Dubai. [4] (p 14) According to MSF, Puntland and Somaliland have Somalia's only two nurse training facilities; these are located in Bossaso and Hargeisa respectively. However, even in this part of the country facilities and resources are severely limited; the whole of eastern Sanaag (Somaliland), for instance, had only one doctor in 2001. [5] (p 2) According to IRIN, in June 2003 Somalia's first medical college since 1991 opened in Mogadishu. [10aw]

5.64 According to MSF, the Somali private health sector has grown considerably in the absence of an effective public sector. Of the population who get any care at all, about two thirds of them get it from the private health sector. The growth has thrown up a range of problems. These include the dispensing of out of date drugs, overthe- counter drug prescriptions and inadequately trained staff which can lead to misdiagnosis. Private health care is characterised by high charges for services - pricing the poor out of health. [5] (p 3) [7d] (p 47)

5.65 Aid agencies have attempted to fill the gap in areas where health services and structures have all but collapsed. They struggle to provide health care in remote areas, where reaching the patients is a major problem. Insecurity is among the main reasons for this; however, the sparse distribution of NGOs means that the sheer distances that patients outside urban areas must travel are also an obstacle to them obtaining health care. [5] (p 3) [14g] The ICRC provides support for 2 referral hospitals in Mogadishu, 18 health posts jointly supported through branches of the Somali Red Crescent Society (SRCS), 3 pre-hospital care facilities and 5 oral rehydration centres. [67a] (p 5) It was emphasised by MSF representatives in the JFFMR March 2004 that medical treatment provided by NGOs is restricted to infectious diseases.

Treatments for chronic diseases are not available from NGOs. [7d] (p 49) 5.66 As noted in the UNSCR June 2003 and UNICEF Nov/Dec 2003, the UN have had success in its immunisation strategy for Somalia and, as of mid 2003, had established over 100 fixed sites offering daily tuberculosis, DPT, oral polio and measles vaccinations for children, as well as tetanus toxoid vaccinations for pregnant mothers. Careful planning and training has also allowed vaccination drives to take place in regional capitals. In the first half of 2003 the programme was extended to several district capitals for the first time. Various nation-wide vaccination campaigns have also taken place. [3c] (p 10) [29e] (p 2-3)

5.67 With less than a quarter of the population having access to clean drinking water and under half having adequate sanitation the risk of acquiring water-borne diseases is high. [5] (p 3) [29b] According to Xinhua, in the capital, it is the IDPs who live in camps around the city who are reportedly most lacking in proper sanitation. [9d] Diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid fever are common whilst cholera outbreaks are an annual occurrence and have been an increasing cause for concern among aid agencies. [5] (p 3) [9d][29b] However, in UNSCR June 2003 it was noted that abundant rain during 2002 has considerably reduced the incidence of cholera. [3c] According to MSF, the country has one of the highest incidences of tuberculosis in the world; malaria is also a major cause of mortality. [5] (p 3)

5.68 As reflected in the UNSCR February 2004, health agencies and local authorities have collaborated on improving the quality and sustainability of health facilities, health service delivery and more accountable health management systems in areas of relative stability. Technical support was provided to local authorities for the management of health-care systems and the development of sectoral policies. Through support from UNICEF, the WHO and other partners, essential drugs and medical equipment were provided in over 400 health facilities, together with the training of medical staff in supervision and monitoring. [3f] (p 10) For further information on the provision of healthcare in southern/central Somalia by region, refer to the JFFMR March 2004 [7d] (p 47-9).

HIV/AIDS

5.69 As noted in UNDP 2002 (released 2003) there is very little data related to HIV/AIDS for Somalia. Partial data collected on the HIV/AIDS gives a low prevalence rate, although not much is known on the awareness of HIV/AIDS among the population. However, the results of the HIV/AIDS category of the study confirmed considerable awareness among the respondents at the basic level. About 95% of the respondents who stated to have heard of HIV/ AIDS confirmed that HIV/AIDS has no cure, HIV/AIDS is transmittable, and HIV/AIDS affects both men and women. Awareness is marginally higher for urban compared to rural and nomadic areas. The major source of information on HIV/AIDS was stated as radio/TV (60.7%), followed by friends and relatives (26%), family members (8.1%) and printed materials (3.1%). [7d] (p 35) [50c] (p 48-9)

5.70 As noted by IRIN, in July 2002 AIDSOM held the first ever public awareness demonstration in Somalia focused on HIV/AIDS in the coastal town of Merka. [10s][50a] Organisers reported that they experienced no harassment and were largely welcomed by the public but acknowledged that in some areas campaigners were forced to leave. The head of AIDSOM acknowledged the difficulties faced in a society where there is little awareness of the disease. Ignorance, mixed with denial of the disease are the biggest problems AIDSOM have faced, even those of the population that are educated frequently decline to accept it can happen. The organisation indicates its intention to continue its awareness campaign to other areas of the country. [10s] As noted in UNSCRs October 2002 and June 2003, UN agencies and their partners also promote HIV/AIDS prevention and control and are engaged in awareness raising activities in Somalia; during the first half of 2003 the World Bank re-engaged in Somalia and has been supporting this work. [3a] (p 12) [3c] (p 10-11)

5.71 As noted in UNSCR June 2003, during the first half of 2003 two workshops on gender and HIV/AIDS were held for 60 policymakers form the Somaliland and Puntland. In this period capacity was enhanced for 15 HIV/AIDS counsellors based at the Boroma Tuberculosis Hospital in the Adwal region in Somaliland where additional materials and equipment were provided. [3c] (p 10-11) As reflected in the UNSCR February 2004, the UN began work on the establishment of an HIV/AIDS sentinel surveillance system, combined with prevalence and validation studies on sexually transmitted infections, with the objective of establishing baseline data on HIV/AIDS. The United Nations facilitated training of HIV/AIDS counsellors in Boorama and facilitated access to appropriate medical, prevention and support services specifically targeting women. [3f] (p 10) [29e] (p 7-9)

People with disabilities

5.72 As reflected in USSDR 2003, in the absence of a functioning central state, the needs of people with disabilities are not addressed. However, there are several NGOs in Somaliland that provide services for people with disabilities. [2a] (p 11) MSF estimate that there are approximately 1,500 amputees as a result of landmine casualties within Somaliland alone. [5] (p 2)

Mental health care

5.73 In 2001 it was reported that the sole hospital dedicated to treatment of mental health was in Berbera (Somaliland). According to information produced by the WHO this hospital had insufficient beds to satisfy demand. The living conditions of patients was however described as "dismal"; basic hygiene was reportedly deficient, psychotropic drugs almost non-existent and often, the only treatment available was electro-convulsive therapy. In addition to this hospital there was reported to be a mental health section in Hargeisa regional hospital yet basic amenities here were also deficient. The only psychiatric facility outside Somaliland was a dedicated section in the Forlinini Hospital in Mogadishu. However, with regard to qualified staff four out of five trained psychiatrists in Somalia in 2001 were reported to be based at the Folinini Hospital whilst the mental hospital in Berbera was without any. In light of the limited facilities and resources the majority of mental psychiatric patients in Somalia were reported to be unattended, living with their families or receiving very doubtful and untested attention from traditional healers. [40]

5.74 According to UNSCRs October 2002 and February 2003, projects sponsored by UN organisations in different parts of Somalia have included psychological counselling. [3a] (p 8-10) [3b] (p 7-10)

Educational System

5.75 According to a survey of primary schools in Somalia in 2002/3, conducted by UNICEF (UNICEF 2002/3), a total of 286,808 pupils are enrolled in primary schools in Somalia. In proportion with the primary school age population, estimated to be at 1.6 million, this number reflects a gross enrolment rate of 17% (22% for boys and 12% for girls). Increases in the number of pupils, teachers and schools were registered in all regions. Compared with 2001/2, the 2002/3 survey reflects a net increase of an additional 11% in enrolments, 11% in teachers and an 8% increase in the number of schools. [7d] (p 49-50) [29c] (p 4-5)

5.76 UNICEF 2002/3 also noted that gender gaps continue at all levels. Of the total, females comprise 36% of enrolments, 13% of teachers, and 25% of the members of the Community Education Committees (CECs) (equivalent to Boards of Governors). In the 10 regions of southern and central Somalia, the survey lists a total of 132,711 pupils enrolled at 597 primary schools in which Somali is the medium. It also records a total of 5060 teachers, representing an average of one teacher to 26 pupils. In most regions the provision for primary education covers Grades 1 to 8. In Bakool and Middle Juba there is only provision for Grades 1 to 5.Of all regions in Somalia, central and southern region schools depend most on temporary structures, with only 48% of schools having permanent buildings, only 55% having access to desks and benches. School fees are largely nil or less than the equivalent of one US $ per pupil per month. Teacher support is mostly in the form of cash, rather than in kind, and is largely provided by the communities/parents and particularly NGOs. [7d] (p 50) [29c] (p 4-5)

5.77 As reflected in USSDR 2003 and UNDP 2002, even in areas with relative security, the lack of resources has limited the opportunity for children to attend school. [2a] (p 10) [50c] (p 28) The Transitional National Charter provides for free education at primary level, the specific provisions in respect of other authorities are not known; primary education was officially compulsory under the Barre regime and is for children aged 6 -14. [1b] (p 3757) [37] In practice the present situation is children of 15 and 16 may also attend primary school and parents generally pay fees for their children's education. [2a] (p 10) [7b]

5.78 The survey also lists a total of 38 Arab medium primary schools in five regions (Benadir, Hiran, Lower Juba, Middle Juba and Lower Shabelle) where 19,736 pupils are taught by a total of 624 teachers, representing an average of one teacher to 39 pupils. [7d] (p 50) [29c] [p 4-5] As noted in IFRF 2004, the organised conservative Islamic organisation, Al-Islah, openly operates a number of primary schools in Mogadishu. [2b] (p 2) As noted in JFFMR March 2004, according to an UNICEF representative primary schools in Somalia that use Arabic as a medium are established and supported by various Arab states including Saudi Arabia, Libya and Yemen and also Arabic NGOs. Whereas these schools are not Koran schools there is a greater focus on religious affairs than in ordinary primary schools. [7d] (p 50)

5.79 Access to secondary education for children aged 14 -18, is very limited. [1b] (p 3757) [2a] (p 10) [7d] (p 50) In 2003 the US Department of State referred to there being 3 secondary schools in Somaliland and more than 3 in Mogadishu where many are externally funded and administered by organisations affiliated to Al-Islah; no details were given in respect to any other areas of the country. [2a] (p 10) [2b] (p 2) However, As reflected in USSDR 2003, only 10% of those children who actually enter primary school go on to graduate from secondary school. [2a] (p 10-11) As noted in JFFMR July 2002. UNICEF also places emphasis on the development of the non-formal education sector, especially for 14 to 18 year olds. [7b] (p 65)

5.80 There is no organised higher education system in most of the country. There are two universities in Somaliland and two in Mogadishu; there is also a faculty of the East African University located in Puntland. [2a] (p 10) [6b] As reflected in the IFRF 2003, Mogadishu University is reportedly externally funded by and administered through organisations affiliated to Al-Islah. [2b] (p 1-2) As reflected in USSDR 2003, the literacy rate is approximately 25% throughout the country; however, reliable statistics do not exist. [2a] (p 10) As noted in UNICEF's Nov/Dec 2003 Somalia review, a number of school improvement workshops for teachers were organised and mentoring and building rehabilitation activities carried out in 52 primary schools in Somaliand and Punltand. [29e] (p 5) There are some medical training facilities in the country. [5] (p 2-3) [10aw]

6.A HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES

General

6.1 The USSDR 2003 stated that the country's human rights situation remained poor and serious human rights abuses continued in 2003. [2a] (p 1) The UNCHR position paper of January 2004 (UNHCR 2004) stated that, "...throughout the country, human rights violations remain endemic. These include murder, looting and destruction of property, use of child soldiers, kidnapping, discrimination of minorities, torture, unlawful arrest and detention, and denial of due process by local authorities.

In 2003 a local human rights organization, the Isma'il Jimale Human Rights Centre, documented 530 civilian deaths in armed conflicts between July 2002 and June 2003. A pastoralist conflict in south Mudug in July 2003 claimed an unusually high number of lives for a dispute over rangeland - 43 dead and 90 injured - most of who were civilians. In July 2003, the targeting of young girls for rape and killing was prominent in clan disputes in Baidoa, and kidnappings in Mogadishu reached such alarming proportions that the public took to the streets to protest. Gender-based violence is prevalent, including rape, female genital mutilation and domestic violence. The cultural attitudes of traditional elders and law enforcement officials routinely result in restrictions on women's access to justice, denial of their right to due process and their inhumane treatment in detention..." [30a] (p 2) [50b] (p 6)

6.2 "The prolonged absence of a central government complicates efforts to address the human rights violations. While the de facto authorities are accountable for the human rights situation in the areas they control, many are either not aware of or choose to ignore international conventions, or do not have the capacity to enforce respect for human rights and justice. As a result, an environment of impunity reigns in many areas, which presents a major challenge for UN agencies and NGOs seeking to strengthen measures to ensure the protection of civilians." According to UNHCR 2004. [30a] (p 2) [50b] (p 6)

6.3 According to a Professor Kenneth Menkhaus (an academic expert on developments in Somalia and research consultant to the UN) paper of November 2003 (Menkhaus, November 2003), "...violations of human rights and humanitarian law have shifted considerably since the period of 1991-92. At this time egregious human rights violations occurred in a wide range of areas. Murder, massacres, rape, and targeting of civilians were all widespread practices in south ern and central Somalia. Ethnic cleansing campaigns, especially in Mogadishu and valuable riverine areas of southern Somalia, created massive displacement and suffering. Forced conscription and quasi-enslavement on farms was visited upon weak social groups such as the Bantu; and scorched earth tactics were employed by retreating militia to render whole communities destitute and vulnerable to famine." [7d] (p 13) [8] (p 10)

6.4 Menkhaus (November 2003) considered that "...since 1991/2, important changes have occurred in Somalia with regard to human rights and humanitarian law. Incidents of massacres, rape, and ethnic cleansing are rare (recent examples in Baidoa are the exception rather than the rule). A gradual reintegration of communities has occurred in many areas, including Mogadishu; and there have been no instances of militias intentionally provoking famine to divert food aid. Food aid itself continues to pour into the country, but is less frequently targeted by looters." [7d] (p 13) [8] (p 10)

6.5 A new UN Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia was appointed and made his first visit in August and September 2001. [4] (p 1-2) [6a] On 6 September 2002 the Independent Expert for human rights concluded his second annual visit to the region. He visited Somaliland and Puntland but had not been able to visit Mogadishu and Baidoa due to the security situation. It was concluded that, following the deterioration that occurred during the consitutional crisis, the emergence of Colonel Abdullai Yusuf had helped stabilise conditions in Puntland. [4] (p 12, 14) In Somaliland in particular he noted that there had been no reports of serious human rights abuses. [4] (p 15) However, following the visit the expert cited particular concerns regarding the plight of internally displaced persons, law enforcement and prison conditions, protection of women's rights, economic, social and cultural rights and the ongoing need to address alleged past human rights atrocities. [4] (p 9-10) Initial comments by the expert in September 2003 at the conclusion of his third visit suggested the general trend in Somaliland was more positive than the previous year. On this visit the expert had additionally been able to visit Kismayo, in the south, but as had been the case in 2002 insecurity prevented the inclusion of Mogadishu. [10bu] For more analysis of the human rights situation in southern and central Somalia, refer to the JFFMR March 2004 [7d] (p 14-18)

Torture, inhumane and degrading treatment

6.6 According to the USSDR 2003, as of the end of 2002, "...no action was reported to have been taken against TNG, Somaliland, and Puntland forces, warlord supporter's, or members of militias responsible for torturing, beating, raping, or otherwise abusing persons in 2002 or 2001." [2a] (p 4) According to AI 2002, human rights defenders in Somaliland reported cases of torture by the police force during 2001. [6a] As reflected in USSDR 2003, during 2003 "...there were some reports of the use of torture by the Puntland and Somaliland administrations and also by warring militiamen against each other or against civilians. Observers believed that many incidents of torture were not reported." [2a] (p 3)

6.7 In its annual report the Dr Ismail Jumale Human Rights Centre (DIJHRC) DIJHRC reported that during 2002 there were 32 rape cases in Mogadishu, largely committed by militia members. In the 12 months ending in July 2003 the organisation logged 31 rapes. [2a] (p 3) [6b][10bk] However, according to IRIN, other reports suggest that the incidents of rape have in fact increased during the first half of 2003. [10ap] In its report covering 2002, AI refers to women and girls who are IDPs, as well as underprivileged minorities including Bantu, Bravanese, Midgan, Tumal, Yabir and the wealthier Benadiri community, as being particularly as risk of rape by militia and other gunmen. [6b]

International human rights organisations

6.24 As reflected in the UNSCR February 2004, the murder of the three humanitarian workers in Somaliland [63a][63b] resulted in travel restrictions for staff and the scalling down of most humanitarian activities. UN international staff members were restricted to Hargeisa...

Freedom of Speech and the Media

6.26 According to the Committee to Protect Journalists 2002 (CPJ 2002), "...following the collapse of Barre's Government in 1991 the media, which had included opposition and independent newspapers quickly splintered into several small clan-run newsletters and low-watt radio stations. Independent journalism all but disappeared but in late 2000, following Abdiqassim's election as president of the TNG, independent journalism has began to re-emerge in Somalia." [12a] In its report covering 2001Amnesty International commented that "...freedom of expression was very limited in all areas of the country, with little tolerance by government authorities or armed factions of criticism by individuals or the media". [6a] However, in February 2003 Amnesty International referred to "a largely free press" operating in Somaliland. [6d]

Media institutions

6.27 The major faction leaders in Mogadishu operate small radio stations; a total of seven local stations operated in the capital in 2002-3. [2a] (p 6) [10u][12a] According to the BBC, the former state-controlled Radio Mogadishu was initially taken over by faction leader Muhammad Aideed and, following his death, remained under his son's control. Faction leaders, Ali Ato and Ali Mohamed also both set up rival stations in the early 1990s, also calling them Radio Mogadishu. Broadcasting has been sporadic since 1991, reflecting the warlords' fortunes. Recent years have seen the emergence of stronger regional media and several, often short lived FM stations.

[14h] According to the USSDR 2003, "...the TNG began operating a FM station in April 2002"; also during 2001 a new radio station funded by local businesses began operating in the south of the country. [2a] (p 6) In October 2002 the NGO Reporters without borders (RWB), referred to there being about 12 privately owned radio stations in the country, including Oxfam supported Radio Galkayo. [13d] [59a] The authorities in Somaliland and Puntland both operate their own radio stations. [2a] (p 6) [14h]

6.28 According to the USSDR 2003, "The majority of the citizens obtain news from foreign news broadcasts, primarily the BBC, which transmits a daily Somalilanguage programme." [2a] (p 6) HornAfrik, which has won praise abroad for its "relative fairness and objectivity in covering a messy political situation", is Somalia's only independent radio and station and one of two independent TV stations. [12a][14h] According to the USSDR 2003, "Several telephone companies and Internet providers operated and provided service throughout the country during the year [2003]." [2a] (p 6)

6.29 As noted by Freedom House 2003, "...independent television stations have proliferated, though most of the independent newspapers and newsletters that circulate in Mogadishu are linked to one faction or another." [31] (p 2) According to the USSDR 2003, during the year [2003] "The print media largely consisted of short, photocopied dailies, published in the larger cities and often linked to one of the factions. Several of these newspapers are nominally independent and are critical of the faction leaders." [2a] (p 5-6)

6.30 According to the CPJ six different titles appeared in Mogadishu in 2002 [10u][12a] Somaliland has at least three daily newspapers, one government daily, and one independent and a third that is produced in English language, this was formally a weekly newspaper; however, some reports suggest additional privately owned titles are now in circulation in Somaliland's main towns. [2a] (p 6) [13c][14h] According to the BBC, there are reportedly three daily publications produced in Puntland. [14h] In October 2002 RWB suggested there were a total of around 20 privately owned newspapers being produced within the country as a whole. [13d] In September 2003 the Somaliland Times accused BBC Somali service of biased broadcasting of the peace negotiations. [60a]

Media law and practice

6.32 On 5 June 2002 the authorities in Somaliland banned the establishment of private radio stations. People in possession of transmitting equipment were ordered to surrender it to the authorities; however a BBC funded FM station was subsequently permitted to broadcast. [12a][13c] As noted by RWB, although at the time of the ban the official station was operating in the country several people and opposition parties had reportedly applied for broadcasting frequencies...

Academic freedom

6.39 According to the USSDR 2003, "...there are restrictions on academic freedom; according to the US Department of State academics operate under restrictions similar to those imposed on members of the media." [2a] (p 6) According to AI 2003, in June 2002 the president of the East African University in Bossaso was among scores of alleged supporters of Jama Ali Jama to have been detained by Abdullahi Yusuf's forces. [6b]

Freedom of Religion

6.40 According to the USSDR 2003, Islam has been made the "official" religion by the TNG and some local administrations, including those of the self declared republic of Somaliland and autonomous region of Puntland. There is no legal provision for the protection of religious freedom; during 2003 there were some limits to religious freedom. [2a] (p 7)

6.41 According to the US State Department's Report on Religious Freedoms (USSDRRF 2003) "There is strong social pressure to respect Islamic traditions throughout Somalia, but especially in enclaves controlled by radical Islamists. These include the district of El Wak in Gedo region and Doble, Ras Chaimboni, and Kulbiyow in the Lower Juba region." [2b] (p 2)

6.42 According to the USSDRRF 2003, "In 1999 the Minister of Religion in Somaliland issued a list of instructions and definitions on religious practices. Under the new rules, religious schools and places of worship were required to obtain the Ministry of Religion's permission to operate. Additionally, the Ministry must approve entry visas for religious groups, and certain unspecified doctrines are prohibited. In Puntland religious schools and places of worship must receive permission from the Ministry of Justice and Religious Affairs to operate. " Islamic courts ceased to operate in 2002 and did not operate during the early part of 2003, with the exception of two new courts in Belet Weyne. [2b] (p 1-2)

6.43 According to the USSDR 2003, any attempt to convert an individual (proselytize) to any religion except Islam is prohibited by law in Somaliland and Puntland and effectively blocked by informal social consensus elsewhere in Somalia. [2a] (p 7) According to USSDRRF 2003, "There are no ecumenical movements or activities to promote greater religious tolerance." "In early March [2002], three Christian Ethiopian nationals were arrested in Hargeisa for allegedly proselytizing...they were deported to Ethiopia" [2b] (p 2) As noted by AI 2003, in September 2002 twelve people, mostly Ethiopian, were briefly detained for a similar offence; they were released without charge. [6b]

Freedom of Assembly and Association

Constitutional provisions in Somaliland

6.48 The Somaliland Constitution provides for freedom of association.

In a referendum in May 2001, Somaliland voters approved legislation that provides for the formation of political parties. [1a] (p 999) [2a] (p 6) According to the USSDR 2003, "...the law does however limit the number of political parties allowed to contest general elections to three. An ad hoc commission, nominated by the President and approved by the House of Representatives, has responsibility for considering applications. The law provides that approved parties winning 20% of the vote in the presidential elections will be allowed to operate." [2a] (p 6)

Public gatherings and demonstrations

6.49 According to the USSDR 2003, "...although citizens were free to assemble in public, the lack of security effectively limited this right in many parts of the country" during 2003. [2a] (p 6)

6.51 As noted by IRIN, on 23 August 2001 five Sultans were arrested after they had reportedly set up a council of clan chiefs in Burao, central Somaliland. Two days earlier nine clan chiefs had been placed under house arrest for "holding an illegal meeting". The Sultans were released in early September 2001 after agreeing to abide by the Somaliland Constitution. However, they refused to accede to President Egal's demand that they disband their organisation arguing that its existence was permitted under the provisions of the constitution. A mediating team of religious leaders, businessmen and neutral Elders facilitated their release. The clan chiefs were also released from house arrest. [10l]

Political Activists

Somaliland

6.56 Following the establishment of new political parties in the new constitution, the 'Somaliland' National Commission for the Registration of Political Parties issued registration certificates to seven political parties in October 2001. [1a] (p 999) [10n] According to IRIN, President Egal then held talks with the leaders of the newly registered parties. This followed criticism that Egal's UDUB party would have an unfair advantage over other parties' in future multi-party elections. [10n] As stated in ASS 2004, during the weeks that followed several of these parties opened offices and held political rallies, however none were seen as posing a threat to President Egal. [1a] (p 999) As noted in AI 2002, in May 2001 Sulieman Mohamed Gaal, a former presidential candidate in the self-proclaimedSomaliland, was arrested in Hargeisa and detained for two weeks before being released on bail without any charge. [6a]

6.57 According to IRIN sources, in June 2003 General Jama Muhammad Ghalib, a former interior minister and police chief of Somalia, was detained when the plane he was travelling in transited Hargeisa. Ghalib, who originates from Somaliland and has been participating in the peace talks in Nairobi, was reportedly detained because of his support for Somali unity within a federal system. The TNG protested against Ghalib's detention and the Somaliland authorities deported him to Djibouti after two days stating it had been decided not to prosecute him as he was in transit.

It was reported that a group of eight men protesting against Ghalib's arrest attacked Hargeisa airport. One was reported to have died from wounds sustained in the attack, the remaining seven were arrested. Following this incident the Somaliland Information Minister declared that any Somalilander who calls for reunification also calls into question the independence of "the country" and will therefore face the law. [10bb] In July 2003 the authorities in Hargeisa issued a warning against anyone trying to represent Somaliland at the ongoing peace talks in Kenya. [10bi]

Freedom of Movement

6.68 As noted in the JFFMR July 2002, "...the authorities controlling the de-facto administrations of'Somaliland','Puntland' and the Bay and Bakool regions (SWS) have each made it clear that they would only admit to the areas they control those who originate from that territory or those who have close affiliations to the territory through clan membership". [7b] (p 70-71)

The SNM administration in Somaliland has allowed Somalis who originate from the north-west and minorities such as the Bantu to settle in its territory. Even Ogaden clan members, who had moved into the north-west under Siad Barre's administration, have been able to remain in Somaliland and live without undue harassment. While occasional localised clan-based outbreaks of fighting may occur, there is no general clan-based persecution in Somaliland. The authorities in the Hiran region also allow all Somalis to move, and settle with permission, within their territory.

6.70 According to UNHCR's position paper on return, January 2004 "...The general pattern of human settlements prevailing in many parts of Africa, including Somalia, is often characterised by common ethnic, tribal religious and/or cultural factors, which enable access to land, resources and protection from members of the community. Consequently, this commonality appears to be the necessary condition to live in safety. In such situations it would not be reasonable to expect someone to take up residence in an area or community where persons with a different ethnic, tribal, religious and/or cultural background are settled, or where they would otherwise be considered aliens....Therefore, it would be unreasonable to expect a person to move to an area in his or her own country other than one where he or she has ethnic, tribal, religious and or/cultural ties....This is true in Somaliland and Puntland.

...Specifically in Somaliland...those not originating from this area (non- Somalilanders) would be considered as foreigners, and face significant acceptance and integration problems, particularly taking into account the extremely difficult socio-economic situation of those native to the territory...In this regard it should be noted that'place of origin' should not necessarily be equated with'place of birth'...Therefore, the determining factor in defining where a person originates from is where the person has effective clan and family ties, and where clan protection is thus available. In light of the above, especially given the prevailing clan system, UNHCR is of the view that the internal flight alternative is not applicable in the context of Somalia". [30a] (p 7-8) [7d] (p 45-6)

Internal movement

6.71 Whilst large areas of the country are reported to be peaceful, violence resulting from factional fighting continues in several areas, this has security implications regarding the movement of civilians in those areas of the country currently affected. [2a] (p 7) [10ah] According to the USSDR 2003, however, "security conditions continued to improve in many parts of the country" during 2003 allowing many IDPs and refugees to return to their homes. "Checkpoints operated by militiamen loyal to one clan or faction may impede passage and restrict movement of other groups." [2a] (p 7) As noted by IRIN, during 2003 the 500-kilometre Mogadishu - Kismayo road, which reportedly has many militia checkpoints, has become increasingly dangerous with a rise in incidents of banditry and extortion. However, in September 2003 the JVA stated its intention to address this problem and seek to improve the situation. [10bs]

6.72 As stated in a report by the Nairobi-based East African newspaper from January 2004, a US$20 visa fee is payable for transit to and from airports/strips in Puntland and Somaliland, and from Puntland to central and southern regions. In places where a government exists, some of the money goes to the state. In other areas the money pocketed by the occupying warlords and militiamen. [58a]

6.73 According to the USSDR 2003, on 2 April 2002 a TNG minister was detained in Hargeisa and subsequently sent back to Mogadishu. Somaliland authorities said he did not have permission to be in Somaliland. TNG authorities said he was transiting Somaliland to attend a conference in Cairo. [2a] As noted in IRIN reports, in June 2003 a former Somali Interior Minister of Somaliland origin was reportedly detained for two days when his plane transited Hargeisa. [10ba][10bb]

6.74 As noted by MSF in December 2002 and Landmine Monitor Report 2003 (LMR 2003), during the final years of his regime Barre laid more than one million landmines in Somaliland. [5] (p 2) [33] (p 1) In 1999 the HALO Trust, an NGO specialising in demining work, established a programme in Somaliland. According to its 2002 report of operations HALO Trust have "...a local staff of 230 operating in Somaliland. Thus far demining activity has been most focused on western Somaliland, but with the expectation that priority tasks would be completed by the end of 2002 in the west of the territory focus was due to turn to the eastern districts in 2003." In summing up the situation HALO described the mine problem in Somaliland as being "at a manageable level" and anticipates completing priority clearance work by 2005 or possibly sooner. [27] In addition, the UNSCRs February and June 2003 noted that "...the mine action component of the UNDP in Somaliland trained 24 staff from the Somali Mine Action Centre during 2002". [3b] (p 8) In February 2003 the UN reported consideration was being given to extending the programme to cover Puntland. [3c] (p 8-9)

External movement

6.75 According to the USSDR 2003, "In the absence of a recognised national government, most citizens do not have the documents required for international travel". [2a] (p 7) According to a UNICEF report of February 2002, scheduled international air services operate to airports in Somaliland, Puntland and Mogadishu from Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya and some Middle Eastern states. [29a] According to IRIN, between 19 June 2003 and 8 July 2003 the Kenyan authorities imposed a flight ban on all air traffic to and from Somalia, in response to US warnings of an imminent terrorist attack. [10bg] According to the Tanzania-based Guardian newspaper, in 21 November 2003 60 Somali refugees in Tanzania registered for naturalisation. [64a]

6.76 Despite the relative stability in many parts of the country, as in previous years many citizens continued to flee to neighbouring countries during 2002 and 2003, often for economic reasons. [2a] (p 8) [10br] Many migrants have left Somalia from ports in the north-east (Puntland) and, at a cost of up to US$ 500, travelled via boat to Yemen in order to be eligible for refugee status or find work, some continue from Yemen into Saudi Arabia. [2a] (p 8) [10br][10bt][38] During 2002 it was reported that 950 migrants drowned in accidents at sea. During the first eight months of 2003 a further 250 were reported to have drowned in similar circumstances. [2a] (p 8) [10br][10bt] According to IRIN, there have been some reports that boatmen providing passage to Yemen forced their passengers to jump overboard whilst still off the coast of Yemen. [10br] There are indications that most Somalis leaving by this route do not originate from Puntland, but come from southern Somalia. [10bt]

Willingness to accommodate refugees

6.77 According to the USSDR 2003, as there is no functioning central government, there is no policy of first asylum, nor are there any laws with provisions for the granting of asylum or refugee status. "A small number of Ethiopian refugees remain in the country, mostly in Puntland near Bossaso". [2a] (p 8) As noted by IRIN, in May 2003 the Puntland authorities were seeking assistance to repatriate 133 Sri Lankans bound for Europe. They had attempted to use the region as a transit point; according to reports there was not however any suggestion that they had sought to present themselves as refugees. [10as] It was reported in September 2003 that the courts in Puntland will decide what happens to potential refugees originating from Ethiopia and Southern Somalia in situations where they are caught using Puntland as a transit point from which to leave Somalia. [10bt] According to the USSDR 2003, "...the authorities in Somaliland have co-operated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian assistance organisations in assisting refugees". [2a] (p 8) However, as noted in a BBC article, in September 2003 the Somaliland authorities ordered the expulsion of thousands of'illegal' immigrants (i.e. any person not of Somaliland origin) from the territory [14j]

Women

6.110 According to the USSD 2004, "...women and children suffered disproportionately heavily in the fighting following the fall of Barre's administration." [2a] (p 10) According to the JFFMR December 2000, "...there were large numbers of rapes, abductions and forced marriages of women by the warring militia, especially in 1991-92, which has stigmatised the victims." [7b] (p 62)

General legal provisions relating to women

6.111 In the UNSCR June 2003 reference is made to a rapid assessment of women's justice. According to this, women are generally disadvantaged under all three systems of law that operate in Somalia. It is noted that whilst each provides a measure of protection, all systems (namely civil, customary and Shari'a) remain inadequate and contradictory to an extent, leaving women vulnerable and insufficiently protected. The report notes that there are an "almost negligible number of women" in service within the judicial process. [3c] (p 9) [8] (p 9)

6.112 According to the USSDR 2003, "...laws made by the former central government allowed female children to inherit property but only half the amount to which male siblings were entitled." [2a] (p 10) "In the traditional practice of blood compensation and under Shari'a law, those found guilty of killing a woman must pay only half as much to the victim's family as they would if the victim was male." [2a] ([7b] (p 62-3) According to the USSDR 2003, while polygamy is allowed polyandry is not. The TNG charter, not implemented at the end of 2002, contains provisions that prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex or national origin. The Somaliland Constitution also contains provisions that prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex or national origin. The TNG charter provides for universal suffrage as do both the Puntland and Somaliland administrations. [2a] (p 10)

Women in Government

6.113 As reflected in the USSDR 2003, women have historically been excluded from the political process; whilst they have played important background roles in various factions, high-level office has been reserved for men. [2a] (p 10) However, women's groups played a prominent role in the Arta Conference of 2000 and were allocated 25 reserved seats in the TNA in Mogadishu. [2a] (p 1) [7a] (p 12) [7b] (p 62) As reflected in the JFFMR December 2000, this represented a major breakthrough in women's rights and was the first time that women had been guaranteed parliamentary representation in Somalia. [7a] (p 12) At this time TNG leader Abdiqassim spoke of the important position of women and stated his intention of including women in his Government, but as of mid 2002 women held only four out of 75 ministerial posts in the TNG. [7a] (p 12) [7b] (p 62) In Puntland, five seats are reserved for women in the 69 seat House of Representatives. There are no women in Somaliland's parliament. [2a] (p 1) [7b] (p 62)

6.114 According to IRIN, as of June 2003 women comprised 35 of the 362 official delegates at the Kenya peace talks. Most of these women are from privileged groups and have been able to spend some or all their time outside Somalia since 1991. A recurring theme in the women's agenda at the peace conference is a 25 percent female representation in the new government. Most male delegates at the talks reportedly support the concept of greater women's involvement but this has not translated into overwhelming backing for the women's agenda. Delegates favoured bringing the issue of women's representation to a vote but voted against 25 percent representation. Delegates agreed instead on women having 12 percent of seats, this is however slightly more than they were allocated at the Arta conference. [10bi]

Violence against women

6.117 Violence against women in Somalia is widespread; robbery and rape are particularly common. [2a] (p 10) [7a] (p23-5) [7b] (p 62-3) The UNDP Human Development Report of 2001 noted that sexual violence against women during the civil war did not end with the war. According to the report there is some evidence that sexual violence is a persistent crime even in areas of stability. [7b] (p 62) The USSDR 2003 indicated "...that rape is common in inter-clan disputes...there were also reports of numerous rapes of Somali women and girls in refugee camps in Kenya during 2003. Although laws do exist prohibiting rape they are not enforced". [2a] (p 3-4, 10) As stated in the JFFMR July 2002, "...many women consider the traditional punishment of forcing the offender to marry their victim and to pay compensation to the family of the victim for'their' loss to represent a further degradation for the victim herself". [7b] (p 62-3)

6.118 According to the USSDR 2003, domestic violence against women exists, although there are no reliable statistics on its prevalence. [2a] (p 10)There are no laws that specifically address domestic violence, this is treated through traditional means rather than as a legal issue although both customary law and Shari'a law address the resolution of family disputes. [2a] (p 10) [7b] (p 62) According to the USSDR 2003, there are no laws against spousal rape. [2a] (p 10)

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

6.119 According to the USSDR 2003, FGM, which is condemned widely by international experts as damaging to both physical and psychological health, is a near-universal practice. [2a] (p 10) Although illegal during the Barre era, then as now, the issue was seen as a private matter within the family and the practice continued unhindered. [2a] (p 10) [7b] (p 64) According to the USSDR 2003, FGM remains illegal in Somaliland where the pre-1991 penal code still applies there, although the law is not enforced. In 1999, the Puntland authorities passed legislation banning FGM in Puntland, but the law is not enforced. [2a] (p 10)

6.120 As reflected in the JFFMR March 2004, "Gary P. Jones, Country Director, Somalia, Kenya & Djibouti, Norwegian People's Aid (NPA), Horn of Africa Programme stated that, until recently, no NGOs worked with FGM in Somalia. Presently there are several NGOs that they are addressing the issue of FGM. Jones explained that NPA is one of a small number of NGO's in Somalia, which attempts to educate people with the purpose of eradicating FGM. NPA seeks to change the culture of FGM by educating young girls. However, Jones explained that it is very difficult for girls in primary schools to complete their education due to them being kept at home to undertake domestic duties. It was suggested that boarding schools might be the only way enable girls to focus on their education without their parents interfering." [7d] (p 33)

6.121 According to Jones, "FGM is still the norm in Somalia. The main mode of the FGM is the'pharaonic' form, but still many would claim that they only practice 'Sunna' which is a lighter version of FGM. Jones stated that this was done from a business point of view, explaining that people promoting'Sunna' would receive financial support. In reality, however, girls are circumcised in the same manner as usual, i.e.'Pharaonic' style. Circumcision usually takes place when a girl is between four and seven years of age. Nearly 100% of women are affected by FGM in Somalia. Jones did not expect that any significant change would emerge in this respect during the next 15 years, even though some modest progress has been made in some areas. It was emphasised that it is extremely difficult to change the attitude towards FGM, and providing education and information to young girls might be the only way to make any impact on the issue." [7d] (p 33)

Children

6.123 Children have been major victims in areas affected by fighting; children throughout the country have also suffered as a result of the collapse of basic social and educational services since 1991. [2a] (p 10) [10f] According to the 2002 Consolidated Appeal Process for Somalia estimated that one in four children do not reach the age of five. With the deterioration of the traditional social networks an increasing number of children are exposed to abandonment, delinquency and institutionalisation. [4] (p 9- 10) According to IRIN, UNICEF have expressed concern at increased attacks against targeting children since late 2002, these include kidnappings and killings. [10az]

6.124 As noted in the UNSCRs October 2003 and February 2004, "UNICEF produced a comprehensive countrywide child protection study that was completed during the second half of 2003. The study was based on interviews with 10,000 children and adults across Somalia. Some of the study's most salient findings were that one in 20 children interviewed had been involved or had siblings involved in militia activity, mainly in the urban areas. The data revealed that extended families made little distinction between natural and adopted children. However, adopted girls are often not sent to school and married young. Street children are exposed to violence and drug abuse in urban centres. Over 8% of families reported children with developmental problems, one third of them as a consequence of trauma. All statistics were significantly higher for children and families in settlement camps for IDPs." [3e] (p 10) [3f] (p 8-9) [29d] (p 1-11)

6.125 The long-standing Somali practice whereby parents send their disobedient children to be kept in prison until they order their release is reported to remain widespread. [2a] (p 4) [4] (p 10) Somaliland is one area where this practice has been particularly prevalent; children are presently being detained in prison alongside adults and on occasion, are victims of violence or abuse. [3c] (p 8-9) [6b] However, the UNSCR June 2003 refers to the local authorities initiating several actions to address this problem, including setting up a Law Review Committee, Training Committee and Juvenile Justice Forum. The need to strengthen the formal and non-formal juvenile justice system in conformity with international standards of child protection has been identified as a priority in Somaliland. [3c] (p 8-9)

6.126 In the UNSCR October 2003, it was noted that "...in Somaliland, 45 judicial officials, including judges, prosecutors, assessors, lawyers and notaries, received training on juvenile justice, child rights and child protection issues and were provided with a juvenile justice resource pack for reference and application. Somaliland police officers were also given briefings to ensure respect of child rights and their protection by law enforcement officials. A juvenile justice and child protection framework for Somaliland has been adopted, together with the establishment of a strong partnership with local authorities as well as civil society stakeholders. Similarly, a workshop conducted in "Puntland" has provided stakeholders from all branches of local government and civil society with the opportunity to identify measures for the improvement of the child protection and juvenile justice system." [3e] (p 10)

Child care arrangements

6.127 According to an IRIN report published in June 2001 and principally focusing on Somaliland, there are very few orphans in Somali society. Few children are abandoned, even during the hardest of times. It is explained that before the introduction of the modern nation state, the clan structure effectively prevented the very concept of "orphan" - relatives would take in a child who had lost its parents.

Within Somalia a case of pregnancy outside of marriage is almost unthinkable; however, the report refers to a Somaliland social workers comment that "Urbanisation, prostitution and drugs are the most common reason now for unwanted pregnancies." [10f] Orphans and abandoned children are rendered especially vulnerable by the absence of clan support and identity, given the cultural context. [4] (p 10) [10f] According to an IRIN report, after reaching 15 of age Somali children are considered to have reached the age of independence, and are unlikely to be kept in orphanages; this leaves orphaned teenagers with very little support. With regard to the possibility of adoption the report suggests that the clan structure works' prohibitively against adoption, a practice that is not regarded as a "cultural norm". [10f]

6.128 According to an IRIN report, in the self-declared independent "Republic of Somaliland" the Hargeisa Orphanage Centre has been run by the local administration since 1991. Since 2001 the centre has come under the auspices of the Ministry of Education which provides for the running costs; the Ministry of Justice and the prison service had formerly run it. As of June 2001 the centre had a total of 355 children and approximately 60 full and part-time staff and received some support from the UN World Food Programme and the international NGO Hope World Wide. [10f] Al- Haramayn, a Saudi based aid agency also operated two orphanages in Somaliland until pulling out in May 2003 (see below). [10ao]

Returning refugees

6.146 As noted in CAP 2004 and UNHCR January 2004, "...since more than 800,000 Somalis fled their homeland at the height of the crisis in 1991 and 1992, about 465,000 have returned home with some form of international assistance, mainly to northern Somalia. Many more have returned home spontaneously. About 400,000 remain in exile mainly in Kenya, Djibouti, Yemen and Ethiopia. There have been no major reverse movements of returnees to their previous asylum countries. Instead, refugees in Ethiopia and Djibouti, who were largely displaced from the now relatively peaceful northern parts of Somalia, are increasingly returning home." [30a] (p 4) [50b] (p 13) [66a][10cj] As noted in the JFFMR March 2004, "...the UNHCR arrange facilitated returns of 2-3 persons a month to southern and central regions" [7d] (p 44). In February 2004 the Nairobi-based newspaper'The Nation' suggested that 200,000 Somali refugees in Kenya may return on the strength of the peace agreement of 29 January 2004. [65a]

6.147 As stated in UNHCR January 2004, "...it is essential to be aware of the overall impact of more than half a million voluntary returns (organized and spontaneous) on the already over-stretched services and resources of Somaliland and Puntland. As a result, in many cases the returnee population remains marginalized, often forced to live in squalid conditions and in a disturbing poverty. The most common forms of ensuring survival are small-scale trade, casual employment, market activities and sale of livestock. Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that the Somalis in general, including returnees, rely heavily on regular or occasional remittances from relatives in the diaspora. However, income generated from these activities does in the majority of cases not meet the basic needs of the family - an overwhelming 95% of returnees have insufficient income to meet basic needs, despite some claiming to have skills in business, farming and other professions.

Only 5% of returnees are able to afford three meals per day, with 64% living on one meal per day or less. The main sources of food, besides purchasing, are begging and food aid. This daily struggle for survival renders girls and women more vulnerable to abuse unable to take advantage of education, as their days are spent trying to feed the family." [30a] (p 6)

6.148 As stated in CAP 2004 and UNHCR January 2004, "...regarding access to basic services, major concerns prevail among the returnee population. 46% of returnees share their water source with animals, and 75% describe the water as dirty. 47% of returnees are living between 30-60 minutes away from a water source, 22% are living between 0-30 minutes away, and a small minority of 8% are living above 60 minutes away from a water source. 82% of returnees interviewed by UNHCR have access to a toilet, in most cases shared. 64% of returnees have no access to a health facility. 68% of returnees dispose of their rubbish by burning it. Many returnees cannot afford to send children to school due to lack of money and admit that this leads to girls being severely disadvantaged in access to education." [30a] (p 6) [50b] (p 13)

6.149 As stated in the UNSCRs October 2003 and February 2004 since the beginning of 2003, "...5,569 people have been voluntarily repatriated to Somaliland and Puntland from Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya. UNHCR and other agencies are working closely with the recently established Refugee Eligibility Committee in Somaliland in assuring protection, assistance and durable solutions for refugees residing in Hargeysa. In September 2003, UN agencies sponsored a one-day round table in Addis Ababa on reintegration and IDPs in Somaliland that was jointly hosted with the "Somaliland" authorities, donors and host asylum countries (Djibouti and Ethiopia)." [3e] (p 11) In October 2003, "...205 Somalis were repatriated from Ethiopia to Somaliland. In addition, 19 Somali refugees were repatriated from various other countries." [3f] (p 9)

6.150 As noted in UNHCR January 2004, "...regarding the southern and central regions, the position taken by UNHCR is based on the fact that insecurity in southern Somalia continues to be a significant problem. According to UNHCR "Lives continue to be threatened by violence, crime, clan feuds, lack of justice as well as poverty. Furthermore, humanitarian agencies have real problems gaining access to many areas. Militia loyal to different strongmen succeed one another in a perpetual move to establish a sustainable control of certain areas. There is a constant fear of abrupt change in clan balance shaking territorial power bases. This often leads to conflicts between clans and factions. Mines have been laid in many areas as part of current conflicts to either mark territorial control or prevent the movement of people. Moreover, the lack of any effective governing administration may render it impossible for countries with rejected Somali asylum seekers to embark on any comprehensive and co-ordinated dialogue aiming at removing such cases." [7d] (p 44-5) [30a] (p 9)

Current security situation

Somaliland

6.179 As stated in the UNSCRs February and June 2003, security conditions remained calm in Somaliland during 2003, with presidential elections in April 2003 passing peacefully. [3b] (p 3) [3c] (p 5) There were no reports of unrest arising from the subsequent challenge of the result by the party of the second placed candidate. [3c] (p 5)

6.180 When local municipal elections took place in December 2002 only one violent incident was reported, this occurred in the disputed Sool region, according to UN sources. [3b] (p 2) [10y] The authorities dispatched troops to Las Anod in Sool region during December 2002 to prepare for the visit of Somaliland leader, Kahin. [3b] (p 4) [50a] Las Anod is the capital of Sool region which - along with Sanaag region - is claimed by both Somaliland and the neighbouring Puntland. The regions fall geographically within the borders of the former British Somaliland, but most of the population are from the Dulbahante and Warsangeli clans of the Majertien and are associated with Puntland. [10y][11k] With both Somaliland and Puntland laying claim to this area the development gave rise to concern of hostilities between the two regions. The arrival of Kahin in Las Anod resulted in fighting between Somaliland troops and local militia who were reinforced by troops from Puntland. The clashes resulted in the death of the claimant to the post of Governor of Sool affiliated to Puntland and one of Kahin's bodyguards; however, full details of casualties were never confirmed. [3b] (p 2) [10y]

6.181 According to the UNSCR October 2003, "...a riot took place in Burco on 1 September 2003. The incident occurred when the police tried to move a number of IDPs from the secondary school to a new site in the town. The move had apparently been agreed to, and the reason for the clash is not yet clear. One IDP was killed." [3e] (p 7) As noted by IRIN, on 26 September 2003, Hargeisa airport averted closure despite urgently needing rehabilitation work. [10bw] On 2 October 2003, HornAfrik reported that the Somaliland authorities had endorsed efforts by clan elders to resolve conflict bewteen Hawiye clan members [48f]

6.182 In the UNSCR February 2004, "...breaches in security in'Somaliland', an area hitherto enjoying relative peace, caused serious concern. On 5 October 2003, Dr. Annalena Tonelli, an Italian, was shot dead at close range on the grounds of a tuberculosis treatment centre that she had founded in Boorama. On 20 October 2003, Richard and Enid Eyeington, a couple from the United Kingdom, who had been teaching at Sheikh Secondary School as employees of the non-governmental organization SOS Kinderdorf, were murdered in their home in Sheikh. Investigations by the "Somaliland" authorities are ongoing regarding both incidents. On 9 December 2003, the commander of the Hargeisa police traffic division was murdered outside his home. The motive for the attack was reportedly related to the officer's role in the investigation of a traffic accident in which one of his clansmen had been involved." [3f] (p 5)

6.183 According to UNSCR February 2004, "...on 21 December 2003, the Somaliland Parliament adopted a resolution, asserting Somaliland's authority over the Sool and Sanaag regions. Somaliland considers its borders to be those of the former British Somaliland Protectorate, which included the two regions. Puntland's claim is based on the fact that the clans living in those regions are mostly Darod, the dominant group in Puntland.The Puntland administration stated that it would use all means at its disposal to defend the security and territorial integrity of Puntland. On 27 December 2003, forces loyal to the Puntland administration assumed control of Las- Anod district in Sool region." [3f] (p 4) Tension in the region increased early in January 2004 when Somaliland began recruiting militias. [10by] [34b] According to Puntlandbased Radio Midnimo, heavy fighting was reported in the disputed region on 9 January 2004. [35a]

LIST OF SOURCE MATERIAL

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• [a. Africa South of the Sahara 2004 (33rd ed.) p. 989-1015.
• [b. The Europa World YearBook 2003 (44th ed.) p. 3745-3761.

  [2] US Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour www.state.gov/g/drl

• a. Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2003: 25 February 2004.
• b. International Religious Freedom Report 2003: 18 December 2003.
• c. Trafficking in Persons Report: (Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons), 11 June 2003.

  [3] UN Security Council www.un.org/Docs/sc/sgrep03.html

• a. Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, 25 October 2002.
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• f. Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, 12 February 2004
• g. Report of the Panel of experts on Somalia, 4 November 2003

  [4] UN Commission on Human Rights (via Reliefweb) www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/ByCountry/Somalia?OpenDocument&StartKey=Somalia&Expandview

• "Assistance to Somalia in the field of human rights: Report of an independent expert" 31 December 2002 (accessed 31 March 2003).

  [5] M,decins sans FrontiSres (via Relief Web) http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf

• "Bare bone facts about Somalia - an MSF briefing document" 9 December 2002. (accessed 13 March 2003)

  [6] Amnesty International web.amnesty.org/library/eng-som/index All the following reports were accessed via the Amnesty International website Somalia library page at (accessed 26 September 2003).

• a. 2002 Report (covering 2001), Somalia section
• b. 2003 Report (covering 2002), Somalia section
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  [8] Menkhaus, Prof. Kenneth. www.armedgroups.org/Panels/menkhaus.htm

• "Warlords and Landlords: Non-State Actors and Humanitarian Norms in Somalia" (Draft), Paper presented at the Curbing Human Rights Violations by Armed Groups Conference, Liu Institute for Global Issues, University of British Columbia, Canada, 14-15 November, Davidson College 2003. (Based on Somalia: A Situation Analysis and Trend Assessment, WRITENET Paper, UNHCR Protection Information Section, Department of International Protection, Geneva, August 2003.)

  [9] Xinhua News Agency, China (via Reuters Business Briefing)

• b. "Somaliland extends President's term by one year" 13 January 2002
• d. "Hundreds of Somalis being hospitalized in capital for diarrhea" 25 November 2002 [10] UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN) www.irinnews.org/frontpage.asp?SelectRegion=Horn_of_Africa&SelectCountry=Somalia
• g. "TNG announces Islamic courts "nationalised"" 21 June 2001
• j. "Somaliland leader accused" 22 August 2001
• l. "Sultans released by Somaliland" 3 September 2001
• n. "Multiparty talks in Somaliland" 4 October 2001
• o. "AIDS cases on the increase" 15 October 2001
• s. " First-ever AIDS awareness campaign" 16 July 2002
• t. "Passport office opened" 4 September 2002
• u. " President sends back controversial media law" 2 October 2002
• y. " Somaliland polls hailed as a success" 17 December 2002
• z. " Somalia: Review of 2002" 17 January 2003
• aa. " Human rights offices closed in Puntland" 5 March 2003
• ab. " SOMALIA: Feature - Continuity or change in Somaliland?" 24 March 2003
• ae. "Somaliland warns of water and food shortages" 9 April 2003
• ag. "Voting underway in Somaliland's presidential poll" 14 April 2003
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• ak. "Puntland lifts broadcasting ban" 12 May 2003
• am. "Somali refugees return home" 13 May 2003
• ao. "Orphans facing street life after Saudi NGO pulls out" 21 May 2003
• ar. "World Bank resumes operations" 28 May 2003
• aw. "First postwar medical college opens in Mogadishu" 17 June 2003
• az. "UNICEF condemns child killings" 23 June 2003
• ba. "Somaliland detains former minister" 23 June 2003
• bb. " Former minister deported form Somaliland" 24 June 2003
• be. "Medical workers halt work in Mogadishu" 7 July 2003
• bi. "Feature - Women slowly making political inroads" 14 July 2003
• bj. " Somaliland warns against "declarations of sovereignty" 21 July 2003
• bk. " Rights group reports increase in abuses" 23 July 2003
• br. ""No paradise in Yemen", prospective refugees told" 27 August 2003
• bu. "UN Expert calls for urgent attention to IDP camps" 4 September 2003
• bw. "Hargeisa airport averts closure" 26 September 2003
• bx. "Two British teachers shot dead in Somaliland" 21 October 2003
• by. " Tension rising in north" 30 Decebmber 2003
• cc. "Orphanage closures render thousands of children homeless" 5 February 2004
• cj. "Hundreds of refugees return home from Djibouti" 3 March 2004

  [11] Africa Research Bulletin, London, UK:

• a. Vol. 36, No. 6 - covers June 1999, published July 1999
• b. Vol. 36, No. 7 - covers July 1999, published August 1999
• c. Vol. 39, No.10 - covers October 2002, published 28 November 2002
• d. Vol. 39, No.11 - covers November 2002, published 19 December 2002
• e. Vol. 39, No.12 - covers December 2002, published 24 January 2003
• f. Vol. 40, No.1 - covers January 2003, published 24 February 2003
• g. Vol. 40, No. 2 - covers February 2003, published 24 March 2003
• h. Vol. 40, No.3 -covers March 2003, published 24 April 2003
• i. Vol. 40, No.4 - covers April 2003, published 29 May 2003
• j. Vol. 40, No.5 - covers May 2003, published 26 June 2003
• k. Vol. 40, No.6 - covers June 2003, published 24 July 2003
• l. Vol. 40, No. 12 - covers December 2003, published January 2004

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• d. "Government approves introduction of multiparty politics"12 May 1999
• e. "'Sharp' differences reported within Puntland government over militias" 17 November 2003

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• a. "Surgical care remains a priority" 2 October 2003

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• b. Statement regarding the death of Dr. Annalena Tonelli in Boroma, Somalia, 8 October 2003

  [65] The Nation, Nairobi, Kenya

• a. "Over 200,000 refugees may leave Kenya" 17 February 2004

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