Lidwien Kapteijns
Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts
Maryan Omar Ali
Independent Scholar, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada
If one wanted to take the pulse of Somali society from the period 1950-1990, the Somali pop song is a superb instrument, as it offers a direct window to the feelings and concerns of Somali men and women of that era. The genre of the pop song emerged after World War II and matured during the nationalist struggle for independence. It began as a love song and, as such, gained immediate popularity. However, it gained respectability only gradually, as it took up and popularized anticolonial and nationalist themes.1 Together with the Somali riwaayad (or play), of which it was an intrinsic part, the pop song came to express and comment upon all aspects of Somali society, from corrupt government officials to the tensions around women's emancipation.2 Nevertheless, the majority of the pop songs continued to be love songs. Most Somalis born and raised in Somalia have at least passive knowledge of hundreds of them.
It was long believed that only men authored the of the pop song and set them to music, even though it was clear that there was close collaboration between poets and singers of both sexes, who spent much time together. However, since the 1980s, some women singers have created the of their own songs, and at least one (Saado Ali Warsame) claims to have contributed to the texts of earlier songs and plays.3 While the general public is aware of the great Somali poets and composers as a group, it knows the pop songs only by the singers who sing them. That the songs captured the true feelings of Somali men and women is beyond dispute. Indeed, the songs often took the form of explicit debates between men and women, and between advocates and opponents of women's emancipation. A central theme in these debates was the role tradition should play in Somali women's dress and behavior.4
The six songs presented here are love songs and express the universal themes of joy and pain that accompany the ups and downs of lovers. However, as will be evident, these lovers' laments reflect the specific social and economic circumstances of the Somali context. The songs we selected here all comment upon the experience of labor migration and are from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s. Labor migration is a long-standing social phenomenon in Somali society, dating from the precolonial period.5 In the colonial era, Somalis served as soldiers and sailors in the French and British imperial armies and navies and thus made great contributions to the war cause of the Allies during both world wars.6
In the era of the pop song, labor migration increased especially in the 1970s, when the repressive policies of the military regime (1969-1990) targeted individuals, families, and (increasingly) whole population groups for political persecution and economic ruin. The extended daba dheer drought of 1974, the Somali-Ethiopian war of 1977-78, the refugee crises and economic dislocation associated with these, the deepening political repression, and widespread social discontent all added further incentives for migration. As passports were very hard to come by, many Somalis slipped out of the country unofficially, thus increasing the hardships they faced in (often unsympathetic) host countries. The Arab oil boom of the 1970s certainly served as a pull factor, as did worldwide educational opportunities that beckoned many Somali youth throughout this period. Money sent home by labor migrants, mostly through informal channels, became a major part of the hidden economy and thus willy-nilly helped to extend the life span of the military regime.7
The songs presented here do not add much to our knowledge of causes, motives, dates, numbers, destinations, or the amounts of remissions. Nor do they comment on the hardship and discrimination many Somalis experienced abroad. As is typical of the love song, they focus on intimate feelings, in this case on the intimate feelings of the separated lovers. Given that the social code of behavior in Somali society shuns the public expression of any private sentiment, let alone a romantic or sexual one, love songs became an important forum for the expression of such feelings. Because they were anonymous, love songs were not fully private. They were public because they were omnipresent, playing on radios in every house and blaring from loudspeakers in every coffee shop and store. Thus they captured publicly the private mood of their time. The beauty of Somali pop songs cannot be captured on paper. However, the texts themselves both expressed and shaped popular sentiments of this period and are thus important social and literary documents.8
The first song given below, "I Am Leaving" ("Waan Duulayaa"), dates from the 1960s. Who authored it or set it to music we do not know, but it was sung by Maxamed Aadan "Dacar" and Hibo Maxamed. The song takes the form of a discussion between a married couple, Dacar and Degmo; the husband has decided to go and work abroad, while the wife tries to persuade him to stay. The song includes philosophical observations about the changing fortunes of the world and about men and what constitutes men's work.
"I Am Leaving" "Waan Duulayaa" He: Economic necessity is binding like the Dabar iyo hooggaan iyo footlock and leading rope of a camel dani seeto weeyee I have spent all my wealth Iga duule xoolihii that is not hidden from you adna kaama daahnee I have come to the conclusion Dib inaan u dhoofaan that I have to travel once again taladii ku deystee My farewell advice to you is to take good Aan kula dardaarmee care of the home while I am gone rugta sii daryeeloo She: Listen, it is in our interest Dantu waa, inanyohow to stay together innagoo is duljoognee Put this idea of going to another Dal kalaan tegayaa country out of your mind dubaaqaaga ka saar Refrain: He: I am leaving, Degmo Waan duulayaa, Degmooy give me your blessing ii soo ducee She: We have a future here, Dacar, Waynoo dambeysaa, Dacarow don't hurry off, stay ha degdeginee joog He: If death does not interfere, Ragga socodku waa u door travel is good for men hadduu moodku daayee One does not just stay idle in a place Derbi lama fadhiistiyo where one cannot have a good life halkii kuu darraatee Since I have now lost Kol haddaan wax daaqiyo my livestock and wealth, duunyo iga foofayn it would be foolishness doqonnimo weeyaan to stay here together innagoo is dul joognaa She: It is not as if there were ready wealth Duunyo meel ku oodnayd waiting for you there soo dareerin mayside Instead of looking for an income in another Dal kaletaad ka dayey country, why don't you try to find it for us here? halkan nooga doonoo [Refrain repeated: . . .] He: Only a fool does not acknowledge Doqon baan ogsoonayn a problem that stares him in the face darxumada ku foolleh Even camels don't just stay put Dugsan maayo geeluba in their enclosure duddadii yagleelee Nothing is static in this world, Si un laguma daayee and one's luck will change xiddigaa is doorshee Abundance and drought Doog iyo abaar baa succeed each other kolba midi dambeeyaa She: If you will not give up your plan, Kol haddaanad daynayn I will not forbid it kaaga dayrin maayee May the Everlasting protect you Dawga aad maraysuu on your way Daayin ku hadheeyiyo [Refrain repeated: . . .] He: I am leaving Degmo, Waan duulayaa, Degmooy give me your blessing ii soo ducee She: I am sending my blessings along with Kuugu labeeyee, Dacarow you, Dacar, do your best for me! ii soo dadaal
The second song, "Come Back Safely" ("Soo Noqo Adoo Nabad Ah"), was part of the Somali play called Girls, When Will You Get Married? (Hablayohoow, Hadmaad Guursan Doontaan?), authored by Yuusuf Maxamuud Tukaale in March 1975. In the play the song is sung by a newly wed woman (acted by Hibo Maxamed) whose husband is leaving for the nomadic countryside. However, it was received by the general public as a song relevant to labor migration. Many people mockingly changed the "come back safely" to "come back with money" (soo noqo adoo lacagleh), intimating that Somali wives were more interested in their husbands' money than the song suggests. The song expresses the longing and sexual desire of a wife whose husband is abroad. She assures him that she is waiting for him and hopes that he will not forget her.
"Come Back Safely" " "Soo Noqo Adoo Nabad Ah" To you, the husband I chose from Inta saaran dunidoo dhan among all the men of the world saygaan ka doortoow To you, with whom, out of all those alive Sebenadan ragga kacay in this age, destiny united me sedkii aan ku yeeshoow I say this in farewell: Waxaan kugu sagootiyay: Have a good trip. You are on your way Safar khayrleh, socotee, May all go well. sidii roon Don't let go of the good things between us Samihii dhexdeennana ha siideyn Whatever the hour may be, Saacaddii aad joogtana sleep and wake up in the knowledge that ku seexoo ku soo toos I am waiting for you Anna waan ku sugayaa Come back safely! Soo noqo adoo nabad ah I cannot bear your absence Samri weyday niyaddaydii My desire has singled you out Lagu saaray calankee In the middle of the night, I wake up Saqda dhexe habeenkii disoriented and cry out for you sahwiyoo dhawaaqee What is worse, waking with a start, waxaa iiba sii dheer I try to soothe myself, my desire niyad sidig ah saretaagan awgaa for you unsatisfied and on edge daraaddaa u seleshaan sasabayaa Sweetheart, if I can't have you, Samoow, hadday ku weydana I don't know what will become of me si ay noqonba mooyee I am waiting for you. Anna waan ku sugaayaa, Come back safely Soo noqo adoo nabad ah You who are the light of my eyes Arag-sugaha indhahayga nuurka u siyaadshoow and soothe my heart and mind Sidriga iyo maanka qalbiga sifeeyoow How can I get you out of my mind? Sideen kugu illaawaa? I thirst for you and find no sleep Niyad soomman soo jeedda awgaa Although I try to calm myself, all I do is wait for you adun ku sugaysaan sasabayaa Sweetheart, if I can't have you Samoow, hadday ku weydana I don't know what will become of me si ay noqonba mooyee I am waiting for you Anna waan ku sugayaa Come back safely Soo noqo adoo nabad ah
The third song, "Let's See What Today Brings" ("Bal Aan Saadsho Maanta"), by a poet unknown to us, dates from the early 1980s and was sung by Sahra Axmed. It expresses the fears of abandonment felt by a wife who has no idea when (or whether) her husband will come back. She describes how close they were before his departure and complains about how lonely and isolated she has become. Nevertheless, she gets up every morning with the hope that he might be coming home that day.
"Let's See What Today Brings" "Bal Aan Saadsho Maanta" When people have shared their Laba sooryo wada cunay meals, have traveled into new sahan dheerna wada galay territory together and fallen in love, saameeyay caashaqu and one of them goes on a long Mid hadduu socdaal tago journey and is absent for many years, sanado dhawr ah maqanyahay then the other can only wait for him salaantiyo jawaabtii to contact and respond to her kan kalaa sugayoo That is her fate Illayn waa sedkiisee! Refrain: I am waiting for you, my husband, but Kii aan sugayee, saygay ahaayoow you tell me to wait and don't come back I sugoo yaanan soo noqonin This is not what I expected sidaa lama ammaanayn I will not act impulsively salfudaydina maayee May God ease my affairs Sahalana ammuuraha Let's see what today will bring Bal aan saadsho maantana Only God knows what will happen Siday noqon Allaa ogee You cannot distract grown-ups by Suuldhabaale waayeel snapping your fingers as you might marna laguma saba oo a young child; it cannot help me sleep sida sebi carruureed, kuma seexanayee It has become my habit, every morning Sunnay aniga ii tahay to go to the nature reserve and cut seeraha ka soo jaro the flowers with which to welcome you ubax aan ku saaree [Refrain repeated: . . .] Love and desire have harmed me Naf jacayl kufsadayoo9 and made me suffer. It is your fault that, saxariirta caashaqa ku labeeyey baan ahay while I am sitting at my gate, engrossed Intaan seemmanaa baa in thought, the girlfriends I used to saxiibaday iyo hablaha la socon jiray accompany are just passing me by! sabaday igu dhaafeen. Sababtana adaaleh! Refrain: I am waiting for you, my husband, but Kii aan sugayee, saygay ahaayoow you tell me to wait and don't come back I sugoo yaanan soo noqonin This is not what I expected sida lama ammaanayn I will not act impulsively salfudhaydina maayee May God ease my affairs Sahalana ammuuraha Let's see what today will bring Bal aan saadsho maantana Only God knows what will happen Siday noqon Allaa ogee
The fourth song, "You, World, That Tears People Apart" ("Hoheey Dunidaneey Kala Haatiyaay"), probably dates from the late 1970s. We do not know its author, but it was sung by Xaliimo Khaliif "Magool." The song again expresses the feelings of a wife who stayed behind when her husband traveled abroad to work. In it, the wife wonders how her husband is doing and whether he is healthy, has found work, and has enough money. She worries about his faithfulness and asks him to reassure her that he still loves and misses her. In its use of camel imagery to express sexual desire, the song is perhaps not unique. However, few songs are as explicit about physical desire as this one.
"You, World, That Tears "Hoheey Dunidaneey People Apart " Kala Haatiyaay" You, World, that tears people apart Hoheey dunidaneey kala haatiyaay I am separated from the one I am Naftu waxay u hibatoo ay haaban waydoo longing for, suffering one disappointment after another ku hanqaara badanaa When two who are indispensable Laba aan is hurinoo haddana aan is haynoo to each other are separated intuu caashaq wada helay and when two lovers are forced hayaan kala fogaadoo apart by time and distance, each one kala feeray waayuhu has to cope with his own surroundings nin waliba halkiisuu la jiifaa hal gaadhee How are you tonight in your new place? Halka aad ku negidahay, maxaad caawa haysaa? How is your health, the quality of your life, hawada caafimaadkaagiyo xeerka the money in your pocket, your work? noloshaada, hayntaada jeebkiyo siday hawsha kugu tahayee? I lie awake thinking of you and longing Hibashada xusuusta ah hurdo for you kaa ma seexdee My heart is pounding. Is yours thumping Wadnahaa i habayee, kaaguna as well? ma heemaa? Do you long for our romantic conversations? Haasaawaheenii ma u soo hilowdaa? At night, in your bed, do you see me in Habeenkii kolkay tahay, ma front of you la i kaa hor keenaa and do you reach out for me? hareertaada gogosha ma ku haabataa gacan? Do you groan with desire to be with me? Sida geel haleela ah hoos miyaad ka10 reentaa? Do you fail to control your intense craving? Hamuunta iyo xiisaha ma is haysan waydaa? Do you sing all by yourself like a singer Sida hoobal caan baxay ma of fame? keligaa heestaa? Have you received my letters with greetings Hambalyada salaantiyo ma and congratulations? heshay waraaqaha? Or did you believe the gossipmongers Hudhud hamuun-kululiyo who set people up against each other hebelo isku keen diray? and did you selfishly look for some else? Amaad halacsatayood ku hawiratay meel kale? Did you forget our old love? Caashaqii horeeyiyo keennii hilmaantaa? This is my news. Send me a clear message Haatufkiyo dabeylaha war la hubo through the mystical winds 11 u so dhiib Kaygana mar iga hoo Let me say it once more. Listen, Hoobeey, laba shub weeye, hoobeey can you hear me? Hey dheh, may maqlaysaayee, hoobeey? This is what I hope for, please Hindisuhu siduu qabo, hadmaad iman tell me, when will you come, when will you come? hadmaad iman, bal ii sheeg?
The fifth song, "Joking" ("Kaftan"), whose date and author are not known to us, is sung by Hibo Maxamed. In it the wife expresses how miserable her husband's decision to go and work abroad is making her. She feels lonely and isolated, and, while she agrees that they need a minimum income, she tells him that she would rather have his company than great wealth.
"Joking" "Kaftan"
First we just exchanged some jokes Kaftan baa jacayl qaba
Then we began to meet and kulanka
exchange all kinds of opinions u xididdaa
That is how we fell in love murti baas ka kicisee
But then you decided that you Intaad keen adduunyiyo
wanted to make money and kordhi maal is leedahay
increase your resources, and you Kax baan ahayee,
went on a long trip to work abroad ma ogtahay?
Are you aware how desolate I am? u keynaantay tacabbiree
Are you aware that, while I see Kolkaan laba kufkeennoo kaftamaaye
others of our age joke together, eegaba
I sit aimlessly on my bed, all alone? Keligay sariirtaan kududaaye ma ogtahay?
No one can escape his destiny Qofna kadabkii loo qoray kolna
seegi maayee
We need to eat and clothe ourselves Kurdad waa la qaataa, kimis waa la quutaa
but there is no benefit in exaggerated wealth kibirku danta maahee
I am not just talking about having children Kurbo maleh carruurtuye
I cannot bear living all alone without you, Kuu calaf ii siiyoow,
the husband given to me by fate kol haddii ay keli tahay
I cannot stand that. Naftan ma adkaan karo ee
You, the one I love, I am not satisfied with Kay laabtu raacdoow,
just sitting at the door all alone kadinkiyo cidladda badani ima kaafiyeysee
I am here. Where are you? Way kanee, ku aaway?
The sixth and last song is called "Qatar" ("Gadar"), the name of one of the United Arab Emirates. Sung by Axmed Mooge, and probably dating from the 1980s, it is the only song presented here that expresses a man's feelings about working far away from his loved ones. In the song, the boy addresses his beloved in northwest Somalia (now Somaliland), explaining why he has been gone for so long, expressing his intent to come back soon, and inquiring whether she still loves him.
"Qatar" "Gadar" You, best of women, Gaaridii haweenkaay beautiful filly that I love geenyadaan jeclaayeey You live in the west, with its rain pools, Adigaa galbeediyo gal xareedi jiiftiyo in Gol Janno, Hargeisa, and Gol Janniyo Hargaysiyo Guryo-samo,12 and milk Guryo-samo ku nooloo camels who have just calved geel dhalay ku maalee But I am far from the loved ones Meeluu gacal ka dheeryoo in a place called Qatar la yidhaahdo Gadar baan Circumstances forced me to go intaan gaadhey waa hore there a long time ago, and I have waayuhu i geeyoo been unable to come back kaba iman waayee Refrain: If you are longing for me, Haddii aad golmoontahay I too am burning with love waa i gubay jacaylkuyee If you don't stop this flood of love Gurmadkiisa caashaqa from coming down, adiguna ha gaagixin I too will not give up on it anna gaabis yaan noqon I did my utmost best for you, and Anigoon ku gabin iyo you understood my circumstances, adigoon gardiid noqon even though our fate has been Haddii uu gu'yaal badan slow in coming and financial hardship nabsi gaabinaayiyo separated us waqti gaar inoo helay What I mean is this: if it is the Waxaan uga go'leeyahay will of the Victorious God, then I will haddii Guullaheen qoray take the supersonic machines the kuwa guuxa dhaafee white people make gaalada samaysee, and cross the seas ka gudbaya baddahaan, soo garabso leeyee [Refrain repeated: . . .]
Notes
We are grateful to Maxamed Daahir Afrax for commenting on our draft and are sorry that we have not been able to find the names of the authors of most of the songs presented here. We intend to pursue further research in this area.
1. John William Johnson, "Heelloy": Modern Poetry and Songs of the Somali
(London: Haan Publishing, 1996); Johnson, Heellooy Heelleellooy: The
Development of the Genre Heello in Modern Somali Poetry, new ed.
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974).
2. John William Johnson and Lidwien Kapteijns (with Maryan Omar Ali),
pt. 2 of Women's Voices in a Man's World: Women and the Pastoral
Tradition in Northern Somali Orature, c. 1899-1980 (Portsmouth, N.H.:
Heinemann, 1999). For plays, see Maxamed Daahir Afrax, Fan-
Masraxeedka Soomaalida (Djibouti: Centre National de la Promotion
Culturelle et Artistique, 1987); and Hasan Sheikh Mumin, Leopard among
the Women (Shabeelnaagood), trans. B. W. Andrzejewski (London: Oxford
University Press, 1974).
3. Kapteijns, Women's Voices, 109-10. See text enclosed in Saaddo Ali
Warsame' s audiocassette entitled "Xamdi."
4. Kapteijns, Women's Voices, pt. 2.
5. See, for example, Edward A. Alpers, "The Somali Community of Aden in
the Nineteenth Century," Northeast African Studies 8, no. 2-3 (1986):
143-68.
6. See, for example, Nuruddin Farah, Yesterday, Tomorrow: Voices from the
Somali Diaspora (London: Cassell, 2000), 98-100; Daoud A. Alwan and
Yohanis Mibrathu, Historical Dictionary of Djibouti (Lanham, Md.:
Scarecrow Press, 2000), 22; W. Lloyd-Jones, Battalion Somali: W. Lloyd-
Jones, K.A.R.: Being an Unofficial Account of the Origin and Activities of the
King's African Rifles (London: Arrowsmith, 1920).
7. For the remissions sent back by Somali labor migrants, see Norman N.
Miller, The Other Somalia, pt. 1, Illicit Trade and the Hidden Economy,
AUFS Reports, no. 29 (Hanover, N.H.: American Universities Field Staff,
1981); and International Labor Migration Jobs and Skills Program for
Africa, Rural-Urban Gap and Income Distribution: The Case of Somalia
(Addis Ababa, International Labor Office, 1982).
8. The literary aspects of the songs are not analyzed here, but note the alliteration.
Thus, in the first song, in which the alliterative consonant is "d,"
each line of poetry has two beginning with "d," or one in each half.
(Here half a line of poetry has been typed as one line of song text.) In the
second and third songs, the alliteration is in "s"; in the fourth, fifth, and
sixth it is respectively "h," "k," and "g." For more on the metaphors and
other poetic qualities, see Johnson, "Heelloy": Modern Poetry and Songs of
the Somali.
9. Kufsadayoo is conjectural. It does not sound right, but it is what we think
we heard on tape.
10. Geel haleela ah literally refers to a female camel that keenly wants to give
suck to its calf.
11. Haatuf refers to a mystical voice from a supernatural source that informs
or advises people. See also Andrzejewski's introduction to Hasan Sheikh
Mumin, Leopard among the Women, 26.
12. The names refer to place names in northwest Somalia, now, to many of its
inhabitants, Somaliland.